[\n\n===Poetry===\nAlmost half of Ibn S?n?\'s works are versified.][[[Edward Granville Browne|E.G. Browne]], \'\'Islamic Medicine\'\' (sometimes also printed under the title \'\'Arabian medicine\'\'), 2002, Goodword Pub., ISBN 81-87570-19-9, p61] His poems appear in both Arabic and Persian. As an example, Edward Granville Browne claims that the following Persian verses are incorrectly attributed to [[Omar Khayy?m]], and were originally written by Ibn S?n?:[E.G. Browne, \'\'Islamic Medicine\'\' (sometimes also printed under the title \'\'Arabian medicine\'\'), 2002, Goodword Pub., ISBN 81-87570-19-9, p 60?61)]\n{{quote|{{lang|fa|?? ??? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???
???? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ??
????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ? ???
?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? }}
Up from Earth\'s Centre through the Seventh Gate,
I rose, and on the Throne of Saturn sate,
And many Knots unravel\'d by the Road,
But not the Master-Knot of Human Fate.}}
\n\n==Legacy==\n\n===Middle Ages and Renaissance===\nAs early as the 14th century when [[Dante Alighieri]] depicted him in Limbo alongside the virtuous non-Christian thinkers in his \'\'[[Divine Comedy]]\'\' such as [[Virgil]], [[Averroes]], [[Homer]], [[Horace]], [[Ovid]], [[Lucan]], [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and [[Saladin]], Avicenna has been recognized by both East and West, as one of the great figures in intellectual history.\n\n[[George Sarton]], the author of \'\'The History of Science\'\', described Ibn S?n? as \"one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history\"[[[George Sarton]], \'\'Introduction to the History of Science\'\'.]
([[cf.]] Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997). [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science], Cyberistan.) and called him \"the most famous [[Islamic science|scientist of Islam]] and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times.\" He was one of the Islamic world\'s leading writers in the field of medicine.\nAlong with [[al-Razi|Rhazes]], [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]], [[Ibn al-Nafis]], and [[al-Ibadi]], Ibn S?n? is considered an important compiler of early Muslim medicine. He is remembered in the Western [[history of medicine]] as a major historical figure who made important contributions to medicine and the European [[Renaissance]]. His medical texts were unusual in that where controversy existed between Galen and Aristotle\'s views on medical matters (such as anatomy), he preferred to side with Aristotle, where necessary updating Aristotle\'s position to take into account post-Aristotelian advances in anatomical knowledge.[{{cite encyclopedia |last=Musallam |first=B. |authorlink= |title=Avicenna Medicine and Biology |year=2011 |encyclopedia=Encyclop?dia Iranica |accessdate=2011-11-09 |location= |publisher= |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x}}] Aristotle\'s dominant intellectual influence among medieval European scholars meant that Avicenna\'s linking of Galen\'s medical writings with Aristotle\'s philosophical writings in the \'\'Canon of Medicine\'\' (along with its comprehensive and logical organisation of knowledge) significantly increased Avicenna\'s importance in medieval Europe in comparison to other Islamic writers on medicine. His influence following translation of the \'\'Canon\'\' was such that from the early fourteenth to the mid-sixteenth centuries he was ranked with Hippocrates and Galen as one of the acknowledged authorities, {{lang|la|\'\'princeps medicorum\'\'}} (\"prince of physicians\").[{{cite encyclopedia |last=Weisser |first=U. |authorlink= |title=Avicenna The influence of Avicenna on medical studies in the West |year=2011 |encyclopedia=Encyclop?dia Iranica |accessdate=2011-11-09 |location= |publisher= |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x}}]\n\n===Modern reception===\n[[File:Avicenna Mausoleum interior.jpg|thumb|Inside view of the Avicenna Mausoleum, designed by [[Hooshang Seyhoun]] in 1945?1950.]]\n\nIn modern [[Iran]], he is considered a national icon, and is often regarded as one of the greatest Persians to have ever lived. A monument was erected outside the Bukhara museum{{year needed|date=February 2015}}. The [[Avicenna Mausoleum and Museum]] in [[Hamadan]] was built in 1952. [[Bu-Ali Sina University]] in Hamadan (Iran), the \'\'ibn S?n?\'\' Tajik State Medical University in [[Dushanbe]], [[Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences]] at [[Aligarh]], [[India]], [[Avicenna School]] in [[Karachi]] and [[Avicenna Medical College]] in [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]][{{cite web|url=http://www.amch.edu.pk|title=Home Page|author=1|date=28 March 2014|work=amch.edu.pk}}] Ibne Sina Balkh Medical School in his native province of [[Balkh]] in [[Afghanistan]], Ibni Sina Faculty Of Medicine of Ankara University [[Ankara]], [[Turkey]] and Ibn Sina Integrated School in Marawi City (Philippines) are all named in his honour. His portrait hangs in the Hall of the Avicenna Faculty of Medicine in the [[University of Paris]]. There is also a crater on the Moon named [[Avicenna (crater)|Avicenna]] and a plant genus \'\'[[Avicennia]]\'\'.\n[[File:Monument Avicenna in Qakh.JPG|thumb|A monument to Avicenna in [[Qakh (city)]], [[Azerbaijan]]]]\n\nIn 1980, the [[Soviet Union]], which then ruled his birthplace Bukhara, celebrated the thousandth anniversary of Avicenna\'s birth by circulating various [[commemorative stamp]]s with artistic illustrations, and by erecting a [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Avicenna based on [[anthropological]] research by Soviet scholars.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}\nNear his birthplace in Qishlak Afshona, some {{convert|25|km|0|abbr=on}} north of Bukhara, a training college for medical staff has been named for him.{{year needed|date=February 2015}}\nOn the grounds is a museum dedicated to his life, times and work.[{{OnGoogleEarth|39.994359N64.382253E}}]\n\n[[File:TajikistanP17-20Somoni-1999(2000)-donatedsb f.jpg|thumb|Image of Avicenna on the [[Tajikistani somoni]]]]\nThe Avicenna Prize for Ethics in Science is awarded every two years by UNESCO and rewards individuals and groups in the field of ethics in science. The prize was named after Avicenna.{{year needed|date=February 2015}}\nThe aim of the award is to promote ethical reflection on issues raised by advances in science and technology, and to raise global awareness of the importance of ethics in science.\n\nIn March 2008, it was announced that Avicenna\'s name would be used for new Directories of education institutions for health care professionals, worldwide. The [[Avicenna Directories]] will list universities and schools where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated. The project team stated \"Why Avicenna? Avicenna ... was ... noted for his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west. He has had a lasting influence on the development of medicine and health sciences. The use of Avicenna\'s name symbolises the worldwide partnership that is needed for the promotion of health services of high quality.\"[\"Educating health professionals: the Avicenna project\" \'\'The Lancet\'\', March 2008. Volume 371 pp 966?967.]\n\n[[File:Persian Scholar pavilion in Viena UN (Avicenna).jpg|thumb|The statue of Avicenna in [[United Nations Office in Vienna]] as a part of the \"Persian Scholars Pavilion\" donated by [[Iran]]]]\nIn June 2009 [[Iran]] donated a \"Persian Scholars Pavilion\" to [[United Nations Office in Vienna]] which is placed in the central [[Memorial Plaza (Vienna)|Memorial Plaza]] of the [[Vienna International Center]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2009/unisvic167.html|title=Monument to Be Inaugurated at the Vienna International Centre, \'Scholars Pavilion\' donated to International Organizations in Vienna by Iran|author=UNIS|work=unvienna.org}}] The \"Persian Scholars Pavilion\" at United Nations in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]] is featuring the statues of four prominent Iranian figures.\nHighlighting the Iranian architectural features, the pavilion is adorned with Persian art forms and includes the statues of renowned Iranian scientists Avicenna, [[Al-Biruni]], [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Zakariya Razi]] (Rhazes) and [[Omar Khayyam]].[{{cite web|url=http://en.viennaun.mfa.ir/index.aspx?fkeyid=&siteid=207&pageid=28858|title=Permanent mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations office ? Vienna|work=mfa.ir}}][{{cite web|url=http://parseed.ir/?ez=8002|title=Negareh: Persian Scholars Pavilion at United Nations Vienna, Austria|author=Mir Masood Hosseini|work=parseed.ir}}]\n\nThe male name \"Sina\" (also spelled \"Seena\", which more closely reflects the Persian pronunciation) is today a common name in Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey. This popularity is due to the respect for Avicenna.{{Citation needed|date=May 2014}}\n\nThe soviet film \'\'\"Youth of Genius\" (1982)\'\', filmed and studios Uzbekfilm and Tajikfilm, dedicated to children and youth years Avicenna. The film\'s director Elyor Ishmuhamedov. Romantic and stormy, performed works, danger and irresistible thirst of knowledge was the youth of Al-Husayn ibn Abdallah ibn al-Hasan ibn Ali ibn Sina, which will be known around the world under the name of Avicenna ? a great physician, scientist and educator X-XI centuries. The film is set in the ancient city of Bukhara at the turn of the millennium.[\"Youth of Genius\" (USSR, Uzbekfilm and Tajikfilm, 1982): 1984 ? State Prize of the USSR (Elyer Ishmuhamedov); 1983 ? VKF (All-Union Film Festival) Grand Prize (Elyer Ishmuhamedov); 1983 ? VKF (All-Union Film Festival) Award for Best Cinematography (Tatiana Loginov). See [http://kino-teatr.ru/kino/movie/sov/8140/annot/ annotation on kino-teatr.ru].]\nIn [[Louis L\'Amour|Louis L\'Amour\'s]] 1985 historical novel \'\'[[The Walking Drum]]\'\', Kerbouchard studies and discusses Avicenna\'s \'\'The Canon of Medicine\'\'.\nIn his book \'\'[[The Physician]]\'\' (1988) [[Noah Gordon (novelist)|Noah Gordon]] tells the story of a young English medical apprentice who disguises himself as a Jew to travel from England to Persia and learn from Avicenna, the great master of his time. The novel was adapted into a feature film, \'\'[[The Physician (2013 film)|The Physician]]\'\', in 2013. Avicenna was played by [[Ben Kingsley]].\n\n===Criticism===\n\nHe was accused as being an atheist by some Islamic scholars. Among them is [[Al-Ghazali|Al Ghazali]] and [[Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya|Ibn Qayyim]].[http://www.bakkah.net/en/ibn-al-qayyim-explains-the-disbelief-of-ibn-sina-avicenna.htmBook: \'\'Eghaathat al-Lahfaan\'\', Published: Al Ashqar University (2003) Printed by International Islamic Publishing House: Riyadh.] Ibn Qayyim said \"He Ibn Sina is from the atheist, those who do not believe in a beginning of the creation nor an end, nor do they believe in a Lord of the creation, nor any prophet sent from Allah.\"[ Al Ghazali says in his \'\'Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalal\'\' (Deliverance from Error) that philosophers such as Ibn Sina, [[Aristotle]] and [[Al-Farabi|Al Farahbi]] \"should be taxed with disbelieve\"][{{Cite book|title = al-Munqidh min al-Dalal|last = Ibn Mu?ammad al-Ghaz?l?|first = Ab? ??mid Mu?ammad|publisher = American University of Beirut|year = 1980|isbn = |location = Boston|pages = 10|url = https://www.aub.edu.lb/fas/cvsp/Documents/reading_selections/CVSP%20202/Al-ghazali.pdf}}] throughout the book he claims that they view God as not law giving and that there will be no eternal reward or punishment.[{{Cite book|title = al-Munqidh min al-Dalal|last = Muhammad al Ghazail|first = Abu Hamid Muhammad|publisher = American University Beirut|year = 1980|isbn = |location = Boston|pages = 8|url = https://www.aub.edu.lb/fas/cvsp/Documents/reading_selections/CVSP%20202/Al-ghazali.pdf}}]\n\n==Arabic works==\nThe treatises of Ibn S?n? influenced later Muslim thinkers in many areas including theology, philology, mathematics, astronomy, physics, and music. His works numbered almost 450 volumes on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 volumes of his surviving works concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.[{{cite web|url=http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ibn%20Sina-REP.htm#islw |title=Ibn Sina Abu \'Ali Al-Husayn |publisher=Muslimphilosophy.com |accessdate=2010-01-19| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100102091147/http://muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ibn%20Sina-REP.htm| archivedate= 2 January 2010 | deadurl= no}}][Tasaneef lbn Sina by [[Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman]], Tabeeb Haziq, Gujarat, Pakistan, 1986, p. 176?198]\n* \'\'Sirat al-shaykh al-ra\'is\'\' (\'\'The Life of Ibn Sina\'\'), ed. and trans. WE. Gohlman, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1974. (The only critical edition of Ibn Sina\'s autobiography, supplemented with material from a biography by his student Abu \'Ubayd al-Juzjani. A more recent translation of the Autobiography appears in D. Gutas, \'\'Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna\'s Philosophical Works\'\', Leiden: Brill, 1988; second edition 2014.)[[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718 1597]][{{cite web\n| title = The Canon of Medicine\n| work = World Digital Library\n| accessdate = 2014-03-01\n| year = 1597\n| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718\n}}] Latin translation, Flores Avicenne,[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035] Michael de Capella, 1508,[{{cite web\n| title = Flowers of Avicenna ? Flores Avicenne\n| work = World Digital Library\n| accessdate = 2014-03-01\n| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035/#languages=lat&page=6\n}}] Modern text.[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429] Ahmed Shawkat Al-Shatti, Jibran Jabbur.[{{cite web\n| last = Avicenna\n| title = The Canon of Medicine\n| work = World Digital Library\n| accessdate = 2014-03-01\n| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429\n}}]\n* \'\'Risalah fi sirr al-qadar\'\' (\'\'Essay on the Secret of Destiny\'\'), trans. G. Hourani in Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.[Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), \"Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Naf?s (d. 1288)\", pp. 95?102, \'\'Electronic Theses and Dissertations\'\', [[University of Notre Dame]].[http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615]]\n\n==Persian works==\n\nAvicenna\'s most important Persian work is the \'\'Danishnama-i \'Alai\'\' \"the Book of Knowledge for [Prince] \'Ala ad-Daulah\". Avicenna created new scientific vocabulary that had not previously existed in Persian. The D?ne?-n?ma covers such topics as logic, metaphysics, music theory and other sciences of his time. It has been translated into English by Parwiz Mowewedge in 1977.[Avicenna, Danish Nama-i \'Alai. trans. Parviz Morewedge as \'\'The Metaphysics of Avicenna\'\' (New York: Columbia University Press), 1977.] The book is also important in respect to Persian scientific works.\n\n\'\'Andar Danesh-e-Rag\'\' \"On the science of the pulse\" contains nine chapters on the science of the pulse and is a condensed synopsis.\nPersian poetry from Ibn Sina is recorded in various manuscripts and later anthologies such as [[Nozhat al-Majales]].\n\n==See also==\n* [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]]\n* [[Al-Qumri]]\n* [[Avicennia]], a genus of [[mangrove]] named after Ibn S?n?\n* [[Avicenna Research Institute]], a biotechnology research institute named after Ibn S?n?\n* [[Avicenna Prize]]\n* [[Ibn Sina Peak]] ? named after the Scientist\n* [[Islamic scholars]]\n* [[Mumijo]]\n* [[Philosophy]]\n** [[Eastern philosophy]]\n** [[Iranian philosophy]]\n**[[Islamic philosophy]]\n** [[Contemporary Islamic philosophy]]\n* [[Science in medieval Islam]]\n** [[List of Muslim scientists]]\n** [[Sufi philosophy]]\n* [[Science and technology in Iran]]\n** [[Ancient Iranian Medicine]]\n** [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars]]\n\n==References==\n{{Reflist|2}}\n\n==Sources==\n*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Avicenna}}\n\n==Further reading==\n{{refbegin|2}}\n\n===Encyclopedic articles===\n* {{cite book|last1=Syed Iqbal|first1=Zaheer|title=An Educational Encyclopedia of Islam|publisher=Iqra Publishers|location=Bangalore|isbn=978-603-90004-4-0|page=1280|edition=2}}\n* {{cite encyclopedia\n | last = Flannery\n | first = Michael\n | encyclopedia = [[Encyclop?dia Britannica]]\n | title = Avicenna\n | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45755/Avicenna\n | ref = harv\n}}\n* {{cite encyclopedia\n | last = Goichon\n | first = A.-M.\n | authorlink = A.-M. Goichon\n | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]\n | publisher = [[Brill Publishers]]\n | title = IBN SINA, Abu \'Ali al-Husayn b. \'Abd Allah b. Sina, known in the West as Avicenna\n | url = http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ei-is.htm\n | year = 1999\n | ref = harv\n}}\n* {{cite encyclopedia\n | last = Mahdi\n | first = M.\n | authorlink = M. Mahdi\n | first2 = D\n | last2 = Gutas\n | first3 = Sh. B.\n | last3 = Abed\n | first4 = M. E.\n | last4 = Marmura\n | first5 = F.\n | last5 = Rahman\n | first6 = G.\n | last6 = Saliba\n | first7 = O.\n | last7 = Wright\n | first8 = B.\n | last8 = Musallam\n | first9 = M.\n | last9 = Achena\n | first10 = S.\n | last10 = Van Riet,\n | first11 = U.\n | last11 = Weisser\n | encyclopedia = [[Encyclop?dia Iranica]]\n | title = Avicenna\n | url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-index\n | year = 1987\n | ref = harv\n}}\n*{{CathEncy|wstitle=Avicenna}}\n*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Avicenna|title=Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna)}}\n* {{cite encyclopedia | editor = Thomas Hockey | last = Ragep | first = Sally P. | title=Ibn S?n?: Ab? ?Al? al??usayn ibn ?Abdall?h ibn S?n? | encyclopedia = The [[Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers]] | publisher = Springer | year = 2007 | location = New York | pages = 570?2 | url=http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.htm | isbn=978-0-387-31022-0|display-editors=etal}} ([http://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.pdf PDF version])\n* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/ Avicenna] entry by Sajjad H. Rizvi in the \'\'[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]\'\'\n\n===Primary literature===\n* For an old list of other extant works, [[C. Brockelmann|C. Brockelmann\'s]] \'\'Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur\'\' (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 452?458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.)\n* For a current list of his works see A. Bertolacci (2006) and D. Gutas (2014) in the section \"Philosophy\".\n* {{Cite book| edition = 1| publisher = Brigham Young University| isbn = 0-934893-77-2| last = Avicenna| others = Michael E. Marmura (trans.)| title = The Metaphysics of The Healing| series = A parallel English-Arabic text translation| year = 2005}}\n*{{Cite book | publisher = Great Books of the Islamic World | isbn = 978-1-871031-67-6 | last = Avicenna | others = Laleh Bakhtiar (ed.), Oskar Cameron Gruner (trans.), Mazhar H. Shah (trans.) | title = The Canon of Medicine (al-Q?n?n f?\'l-?ibb), vol. 1 | year = 1999 | ref=harv}}\n* Avicenne: \'\'R?futation de l\'astrologie\'\'. Edition et traduction du texte arabe, introduction, notes et lexique par Yahya Michot. Pr?face d\'Elizabeth Teissier (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2006) ISBN 2-84161-304-6.\n* William E. Gohlam (ed.), \'\'The Life of Ibn Sina. A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation\'\', Albany, State of New York University Press, 1974.\n* For Ibn Sina\'s life, see [[Ibn Khallikan|Ibn Khallikan\'s]] \'\'Biographical Dictionary\'\', translated by [[de Slane]] (1842); [[F. W?stenfeld|F. W?stenfeld\'s]] \'\'Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher\'\' (G?ttingen, 1840).\n* Madelung, Wilferd and Toby Mayer (ed. and tr.), Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of Avicenna\'s Metaphysics. A New Arabic Edition and English Translation of [[Muhammad al-Shahrastani|Shahrastani\'s]] Kitab al-Musara\'a.\n\n===Secondary literature===\n* {{cite book\n | first = Soheil M.\n | last = Afnan\n | authorlink = Soheil Muhsin Afnan\n | title = Avicenna: His Life and Works\n | year = 1958\n | publisher = G. Allen & Unwin\n | location = London\n | oclc = 31478971\n | ref = harv\n }}\n** This is, on the whole, an informed and good account of the life and accomplishments of one of the greatest influences on the development of thought both Eastern and Western. ... It is not as philosophically thorough as the works of D. Saliba, A. M. Goichon, or L. Gardet, but it is probably the best essay in English on this important thinker of the Middle Ages. (Julius R. Weinberg, \'\'The Philosophical Review\'\', Vol. 69, No. 2, Apr. 1960, pp. 255?259)\n* {{cite book\n | title = Avicenna\n | first = Lenn E.\n | last = Goodman\n | authorlink = Lenn Evan Goodman\n | year = 2006\n | publisher = Cornell University Press\n | edition = Updated\n | isbn = 0-415-01929-X\n | ref = harv\n }}\n** This is a distinguished work which stands out from, and above, many of the books and articles which have been written in this century on Avicenna (Ibn S?n?) (A.D. 980?1037). It has two main features on which its distinction as a major contribution to Avicennan studies may be said to rest: the first is its clarity and readability; the second is the comparative approach adopted by the author. ... (Ian Richard Netton, \'\'Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society\'\', Third Series, Vol. 4, No. 2, July 1994, pp. 263?264)\n* {{cite journal |volume=5?6 |pages=323?36 |last=Gutas |first=Dimitri |title=Avicenna\'s ma?hab, with an Appendix on the question of his date of birth |journal=Quaderni di Studi Arabi |year=1987}}\n* Y. T. Langermann (ed.), \'\'Avicenna and his Legacy. A Golden Age of Science and Philosophy\'\', Brepols Publishers, 2010, ISBN 978-2-503-52753-6\n* For a new understanding of his early career, based on a newly discovered text, see also: Michot, Yahya, \'\'Ibn S?n?: Lettre au vizir Ab? Sa\'d\'\'. \'\'Editio princeps\'\' d\'apr?s le manuscrit de Bursa, traduction de l\'arabe, introduction, notes et lexique (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2000) ISBN 2-84161-150-7.\n* {{cite book |title=Avicenna |language=German |first=Gotthard |last=Strohmaier |authorlink=Gotthard Strohmaier |publisher=C.H. Beck |year=2006 |isbn=3-406-54134-8}}\n** This German publication is both one of the most comprehensive general introductions to the life and works of the philosopher and physician Avicenna (Ibn S?n?, d. 1037) and an extensive and careful survey of his contribution to the history of science. Its author is a renowned expert in Greek and Arabic medicine who has paid considerable attention to Avicenna in his recent studies. ... (Amos Bertolacci, \'\'Isis\'\', Vol. 96, No. 4, December 2005, p. 649)\n* {{cite book|author=Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman|title=Resalah Judiya of Ibn Sina (First edition 1971), Literary Research Unit, CCRIH, [[Aligarh Muslim University]], [[Aligarh]]; (Second edition 1981) Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi; (Fourth edition 1999), Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi}}\n* {{cite book|author=Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman|title=AI-Advia al-Qalbia of Ibn Sina|year = 1996 |publisher= Publication Division, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh}}\n* {{cite book|author=Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman|title=Ilmul Amraz of Ibn Sina (First edition 1969), Tibbi Academy, Delhi (Second edition 1990), (Third edition 1994), Tibbi Academy, Aligarh}}\n* {{cite encyclopedia|author=Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman|title=Qanoon lbn Sina Aur Uskey Shareheen wa Mutarjemeen|year = 1986 |publisher= Publication Division, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh}}\n* {{Citation|publisher = Pabl?keshan D?v?zan, Muslim Y?n?varsi??|publication-place = ?Al?ga?h|author = Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman|url = http://openlibrary.org/books/OL1374509M/Q?n?n-i_ibn-i_S?n?_aur_us_ke_sh?r??n_va_mutarajim?n|title = Q?n?n-i ibn-i S?n? aur us ke sh?r??n va mutarajim?n|publication-date = 1986}}\n* {{cite encyclopedia|author=Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman|title=Qanun Ibn Sina and its Translation and Commentators (Persian Translation; 203pp)|year = 2004 |publisher= Society for the Appreciation of Cultural Works and Dignitaries, Tehran, Iran}}\n* Shaikh al Rais Ibn Sina (Special number) 1958?59, Ed. Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, [[India]].\n\n===Medicine===\n* [[Edward Granville Browne|Browne, Edward G.]]. \'\'Islamic Medicine. Fitzpatrick Lectures Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians in 1919?1920\'\', reprint: New Delhi: Goodword Books, 2001. ISBN 81-87570-19-9\n* Pormann, Peter & Savage-Smith, Emilie. \'\'Medieval Islamic Medicine\'\', Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2007.\n* Prioreschi, Plinio. \'\'Byzantine and Islamic Medicine\'\', A History of Medicine, Vol. 4, Omaha: Horatius Press, 2001.\n\n===Philosophy===\n* Amos Bertolacci, \'\'The Reception of Aristotle\'s Metaphysics in Avicenna\'s Kitab al-Sifa\'. A Milestone of Western Metaphysical Thought\'\', Leiden: Brill 2006, (Appendix C contains an \'\'Overview of the Main Works by Avicenna on Metaphysics in Chronological Order\'\').\n* [[Dimitri Gutas]], \'\'Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna\'s Philosophical Works\'\', Leiden, Brill 2014, second revised and expanded edition (first edition: 1988), including an inventory of Avicenna\' Authentic Works.\n* Jon Mc Ginnis and David C. Reisman (eds.) \'\'Interpreting Avicenna: Science and Philosophy in Medieval Islam: Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Avicenna Study Group\'\', Leiden: Brill, 2004.\n* {{link language|fr}} Michot, Jean R., \'\'La destin?e de l\'homme selon Avicenne\'\', Louvain: Aedibus Peeters, 1986, ISBN 978-90-6831-071-9.\n* [[Nader El-Bizri]], \'\'The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and [[Heidegger]]\'\', Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000 (reprinted by SUNY Press in 2014 with a new Preface).\n* Nader El-Bizri, \"Avicenna and Essentialism,\" \'\'Review of Metaphysics\'\', Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp. 753?778.\n* Nader El-Bizri, \"Avicenna\'s \'\'De Anima\'\' between Aristotle and Husserl,\" in \'\'The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming\'\', ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2003, pp. 67?89.\n* Nader El-Bizri, \"Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna\'s Metaphysics and Cosmology,\" in \'\'Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm\'\', ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2006, pp. 243?261.\n* Nader El-Bizri, \'Ibn S?n?\'s Ontology and the Question of Being\', \'\'Ishr?q: Islamic Philosophy Yearbook\'\' 2 (2011), 222?237\n* Nader El-Bizri, \'Philosophising at the Margins of \'Sh\'i Studies\': Reflections on Ibn S?n?\'s Ontology\', in \'\'The Study of Sh\'i Islam. History, Theology and Law\'\', eds. F. Daftary and G. Miskinzoda (London: I. B. Tauris, 2014), pp. 585?597.\n* Reisman, David C. (ed.), \'\'Before and After Avicenna: Proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna Study Group\'\', Leiden: Brill, 2003.\n\n===In Russian===\nBiography:\n* Ahadova M.A . The arithmetic of the \"Book of Knowledge\" of Ibn Sina. Geometrical part of the \"Book of Knowledge\" Ibn Sina // Scientists note Bukhara State Pedagogical Institute. ? 1964. ? ? 12. (??????? ?.?. ?????????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????. ?????????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? // ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????????. ? 1964. ? ? 12.)\n* Dzhibladze G.N. Systems Avicenna, Abu Ali Ibn Sina. Exoteric essay. (Some generalizations and materials). ? Tbilisi, 1986. (????????? ?.?. ??????? ???????: ??? ??? ???-????. ?????????????? ?????. (????????? ????????? ? ?????????). ? ???????, 1986)\n* Dinorshoev M. Natural philosophy of Ibn Sina. ? Dushanbe, 1985. (????????? ?. ?????????????? ??? ????. ? ???????, 1985)\n* Zavadovsky N. Abu Ali Ibn Sina: Life and Work. ? Dushanbe, 1980. (??????????? ?.?. ??? ??? ??? ????: ????? ? ??????????. ? ???????, 1980)\n* Luther I.O. Metaphysics of Ibn Sina: angle ? attitude, quality, position or is it more? // Historical and mathematical studies. ? 2003. ? ? 8 (43). ? P. 278?302. (????? ?.?. ?????????? ??? ????: ???? ? ?????????, ????????, ????????? ??? ???-???? ??????????? // ????????-?????????????? ????????????. ? 2003. ? ? 8(43). ? ?. 278?302)\n* Petrov B.D. Ibn Sina (Avicenna). ? Moscow: Medicine, 1980. (?????? ?.?. ??? ???? (????????). ? ?.: ????????, 1980)\n* Sagadeev A.V. Ibn Sina (Avicenna). ? Moscow, 1985. (???????? ?.?. ??? ???? (????????). ? ?., 1985)\n* Shidfar B.Ja. Ibn Sina. ? Moscow, 1981. (?????? ?. ?. ??? ????. ? ?., 1981)\n\nBibliography:\n* Dinorshoev M. Natural philosophy of Ibn Sina. ? Dushanbe, 1985 (????????? ?. ?????????????? ???-????. ? ???????, 1985);\n* Avicenna // Encyclopedic Dictionary Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 m., And 4 extra.). ? St. Petersburg., 1890?1907. (???????? // ????????????????? ??????? ????????? ? ??????: ? 86 ????? (82 ?. ? 4 ???.). ? ???., 1890?1907.)\n* Sina, Abu Ali ibn Husayn ibn Abdullah ibn // Jewish Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron. ? St. Petersburg., 1906?1913. (????, ???-??? ???-?????? ???-??????? ???- // ????????? ???????????? ????????? ? ??????. ? ???., 1906?1913.)\n* Frolova ?.A. Ibn Sina // New Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 4 m. / Institute of Philosophy, Russian Academy of Sciences; Nat. obschestv.-scientific. Fund; Presents t. Scientific Ed. Council VS Stepin. ? Moscow: Mysl, 2000?2001. ? ISBN 5-244-00961-3. 2nd ed., Rev. and complement. ? Moscow: Mysl, 2010. ? ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9. (??????? ?.A. ??? ???? // ????? ??????????? ????????????: ? 4 ?. / ??-? ????????? ???; ???. ???????.-????. ????; ?????. ??????-???. ?????? ?. ?. ??????. ? ?.: ???????, 2000?2001. ? ISBN 5-244-00961-3. 2-? ???., ????. ? ?????. ? ?.: ???????, 2010. ? ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.)\n* Shidfar B.Ja. Ibn Sina. ? Moscow: Science, 1981 ? 184 p. (?. ?. ???-????. ? ?.: ???????, 1981. ? 184 ?.)\n{{refend}}\n\n==External links==\n{{Commons category|Avicenna}}\n{{Wikiquote}}\n*{{sep entry|ibn-sina-metaphysics/|Ibn Sina\'s Metaphysics|Olga Lizzini}}\n* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/ Avicenna (Ibn Sina)] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\n* [http://www.ontology.co/avicenna.htm Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) on the Subject and the Object of Metaphysics] with a list of translations of the logical and philosophical works and an annotated bibliography\n* {{In Our Time|Avicenna|b00855lt|Avicenna}}\n* [http://bdh.bne.es/bnesearch/Search.do?field=autor&text=Avicena&showYearItems=&exact=on&textH=&advanced=false&completeText=&language=enEn Digitized works by Avicena] at [[Biblioteca Digital Hisp?nica]], [[Biblioteca Nacional de Espa?a]]\n* [http://ibnsinaconference.blogspot.in/ International Conference on \"Life & Contribution of Ibn Sina\"]\n* [http://www.avicenna-sina.narod.ru/ ???????? ? ?????????, ??????, ????? ? ???????? (in Russian)]\n\n{{Philosophy of science}}\n{{Islamic philosophy}}\n{{Islamic medicine}}\n{{Scholars of Khorasan}}\n{{Persian literature}}\n\n{{Ancient anaesthesia}}\n{{Islamic alchemy and chemistry}}\n{{Perso-Arab musicology}}\n{{Authority control}}\n\n[[Category:Avicenna| ]]\n[[Category:980 births]]\n[[Category:1037 deaths]]\n[[Category:11th-century philosophers]]\n[[Category:Alchemists of medieval Islam]]\n[[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]]\n[[Category:Classical humanists]]\n[[Category:Arabic commentators on Aristotle]]\n[[Category:Physicians of medieval Islam]]\n[[Category:Persian philosophers]]\n[[Category:Unani medicine]]\n[[Category:Ethicists]]\n[[Category:Muslim philosophers]]\n[[Category:11th-century physicians]]\n[[Category:Medieval Persian physicians]]\n[[Category:11th-century astronomers]]\n[[Category:Musical theorists of medieval Islam]]\n[[Category:World Digital Library related]]\n[[Category:10th-century Iranian people]]\n[[Category:Samanid scholars]]\n[[Category:Buyid viziers]]'
'The_Ashes' '{{Two other uses|the Ashes in men\'s cricket|the women\'s equivalent|The Women\'s Ashes}}\n{{EngvarB|date=March 2014}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2014}}\n{{Infobox cricket tournament main\n| name = The Ashes\n| image = Ashes Urn.jpg\n| caption = [[The Ashes urn]], made of terracotta and about 15 cm (6 inches) tall, is reputed to contain a burnt cricket bail.\n| country = {{cr|AUS}}
{{cr|ENG}}\n| administrator = [[International Cricket Council]]\n| cricket format = [[Test cricket]]\n| first = 1882?83\n| next = 2017/18 (Australia)\n| tournament format = 5-match series\n| participants = 2\n| trophyholder = {{cr|ENG}}\n| most successful = {{cr|AUS}} (32 series wins)
{{cr|ENG}} (32 series wins)\n| most wins = {{flagicon|AUS}} (122 Tests)\n| most runs = {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Donald Bradman|Don Bradman]] (5,028)\n| most wickets = {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Shane Warne]] (195)\n| website = \n| current = \n}}\n\n\'\'\'The Ashes\'\'\' is a [[Test cricket]] series played between [[England cricket team|England]] and [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]]. The Ashes are regarded as being held by the team that most recently won the Test series.\n\nThe term originated in a satirical obituary published in a British newspaper, \'\'[[The Sporting Times]]\'\', immediately after Australia\'s [[History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883#Australia win in England 1882|1882 victory]] at [[The Oval]], their first Test win on English soil. The obituary stated that English cricket had died, and \"the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia\".[{{cite book | author=[[Wendy Lewis]], Simon Balderstone and John Bowan | title=Events That Shaped Australia | page=75 | publisher=New Holland | year=2006 | isbn=978-1-74110-492-9 }}] The mythical ashes immediately became associated with the [[History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883#Bligh reclaims the Ashes 1882/3|1882?83 series played in Australia]], before which the English captain [[Ivo Bligh, 8th Earl of Darnley|Ivo Bligh]] had vowed to \"regain those ashes\". The English media therefore dubbed the tour \'\'the quest to regain the Ashes\'\'.\n\nAfter England had won two of the three Tests on the tour, a small urn was presented to Bligh by a group of Melbourne women including [[Florence Bligh, Countess of Darnley|Florence Morphy]], whom Bligh married within a year.[[http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/63185850 Summary of Events] \'\'[[The Illustrated Australian News]]\'\', 20 February 1884, (foot of column 2) at [[National Library of Australia#Trove|Trove]]] The contents of the urn are reputed to be the ashes of a wooden [[bail (cricket)|bail]], and were humorously described as \"the ashes of Australian cricket\".[[http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/12673335 Cricket] \'\'[[The Mercury (Hobart)|Hobart Mercury]]\'\', 4 June 1908, p.8, at [[National Library of Australia#Trove|Trove]]] It is not clear whether that \"tiny silver urn\" is the same as the small terracotta urn given to the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] by Bligh\'s widow after his death in 1927.\n\n[[The Ashes urn|The urn]] has never been the official trophy of the Ashes series, having been a personal gift to Bligh.[{{cite web|title=The Ashes History|url=http://www.lords.org/history/mcc-history/the-ashes |publisher=Lords}}] However, [[replica]]s of the urn are often held aloft by victorious teams as a symbol of their victory in an Ashes series. Since the [[English cricket team in Australia in 1998?99|1998?99 Ashes series]], a [[Waterford Crystal]] representation of the Ashes urn (called the Ashes Trophy) has been presented to the winners of an Ashes series as the official trophy of that series. Whichever side holds the Ashes, the urn remains in the MCC Museum at [[Lord\'s Cricket Ground|Lord\'s]]; it has however been taken to Australia to be put on touring display on two occasions: as part of the [[Australian Bicentenary]] celebrations in 1988, and to accompany the [[English cricket team in Australia in 2006?07|Ashes series in 2006?07]].\n\nAn Ashes series is traditionally of five Tests, hosted in turn by England and Australia at least once every four years. {{As of|2015|08}}, England hold the ashes, having won three of the five Tests in the [[2015 Ashes series]]. Overall, Australia has won 32 series, England 32 and five series have been drawn.\n\n==1882 origins==\n{{main|Australian cricket team in England in 1882}}\n[[File:Ranji 1897 page 143 F. R. Spofforth, the demon bowler.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Fred Spofforth]], \"The Demon Bowler\", was instrumental in Australia\'s 1882 victory over England with 14 wickets for 90.]]\nThe first [[Test cricket|Test match]] between England and Australia was played in [[Melbourne]], Australia, [[English cricket team in Australia and New Zealand in 1876?77|in 1877]], though the Ashes legend started later, after the ninth Test, played in 1882. On their [[Australian cricket team in England and the United States in 1882|tour of England]] that year the Australians played just one Test, at [[the Oval]] in London. It was a low-scoring affair on a difficult [[Cricket pitch|wicket]].[Fred Spofforth, however, contended that, the fourth innings aside, it played perfectly well.] Australia made a mere 63 runs in its first [[innings]], and England, led by [[A. N. Hornby]], took a 38-run lead with a total of 101. In their second innings, the Australians, boosted by a spectacular 55 runs off 60 deliveries from [[Hugh Massie]], managed 122, which left England only 85 runs to win. The Australians were greatly demoralised by the manner of their second-innings collapse, but fast bowler [[Fred Spofforth]], spurred on by the [[gamesmanship]] of his opponents, in particular [[W. G. Grace]], refused to give in. \"This thing can be done,\" he declared. Spofforth went on to devastate the English batting, taking his final four wickets for only two runs to leave England just eight runs short of victory.\n\nWhen [[Ted Peate]], England\'s last batsman, came to the crease, his side needed just ten runs to win, but Peate managed only two before he was bowled by [[Harry Boyle]]. An astonished Oval crowd fell silent, struggling to believe that England could possibly have lost to a colony on home soil. When it finally sank in, the crowd swarmed onto the field, cheering loudly and chairing Boyle and Spofforth to the pavilion.\n\nWhen Peate returned to the pavilion he was reprimanded by his captain for not allowing his partner, [[Charles Studd]] (one of the best batsman in England, having already hit two centuries that season against the colonists), to get the runs. Peate humorously replied, \"I had no confidence in Mr Studd, sir, so thought I had better do my best.\"[\n{{cite news\n|first=Jack\n|last=Worrall\n|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/83580262\n|title=A Great Bowlers\' Victory\n|page=11 \n|newspaper=[[Daily News (Perth, Western Australia)|Daily News]] \n|location=Perth, WA |date=23 August 1930 \n|accessdate=25 August 2013\n}}\n]\n\nThe momentous defeat was widely recorded in the British press, which praised the Australians for their plentiful \"pluck\" and berated the Englishmen for their lack thereof. A celebrated poem appeared in \'\'[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]\'\' on Saturday, 9 September. The first verse, quoted most frequently, reads:\n\n\n\nWell done, [[wikt:cornstalk|Cornstalks]]! Whipt us\nFair and square,\nWas it luck that tript us?\nWas it scare?\nKangaroo Land\'s \'Demon\', or our own\nWant of \'devil\', coolness, nerve, backbone?\n
\n\nOn 31 August, in the [[C. W. Alcock|Charles Alcock]]-edited magazine \'\'Cricket: A Weekly Record of The Game\'\', there appeared a mock obituary:\n\n:\'\'SACRED TO THE MEMORY\'\'\n:\'\'OF\'\'\n:\'\'ENGLAND\'S SUPREMACY IN THE\'\'\n:\'\'CRICKET-FIELD\'\'\n:\'\'WHICH EXPIRED\'\'\n:\'\'ON THE 29TH DAY OF AUGUST, AT THE OVAL\'\'\n:\'\'\"ITS END WAS PEATE\"\'\'\n\n[[File:DeathofEnglishCricket.jpg|thumb|The death notice that appeared in \'\'[[The Sporting Times]]\'\']]\nOn 2 September a more celebrated mock obituary, written by [[Reginald Shirley Brooks]], appeared in \'\'[[The Sporting Times]]\'\'. It read:\n\n:\'\'In Affectionate Remembrance\'\'\n:\'\'of\'\'\n:\'\'ENGLISH CRICKET,\'\'\n:\'\'which died at the Oval\'\'\n:\'\'on\'\'\n:\'\'29 August 1882,\'\'\n:\'\'Deeply lamented by a large circle of sorrowing\'\'\n:\'\'friends and acquaintances\'\'\n\n:\'\'R.I.P.\'\'\n\n:\'\'N.B.?The body will be cremated and the\'\'\n:\'\'ashes taken to Australia.\'\'\n\n[[Ivo Bligh, 8th Earl of Darnley|Ivo Bligh]] promised that on [[English cricket team in Australia in 1882?83|1882?83 tour of Australia]], he would, as England\'s captain, \"recover those Ashes\". He spoke of them several times over the course of the tour, and the Australian media quickly caught on. The three-match series resulted in a two-one win to England, notwithstanding a fourth match, won by the Australians, whose status remains a matter of ardent dispute.{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}}\n\nIn the 20 years following Bligh\'s campaign the term \"the Ashes\" largely disappeared from public use. There is no indication that this was the accepted name for the series, at least not in England. The term became popular again in Australia first, when [[George Giffen]], in his memoirs (\'\'With Bat and Ball\'\', 1899), used the term as if it were well known.[Gibson, A., \'\'Cricket Captains of England\'\', p. 26.]\n\nThe true and global revitalisation of interest in the concept dates from 1903, when [[Plum Warner|Pelham Warner]] took a team to Australia with the promise that he would regain \"the ashes\". As had been the case on Bligh\'s tour 20 years before, the Australian media latched fervently onto the term and, this time, it stuck. Having fulfilled his promise, Warner published a book entitled \'\'How We Recovered the Ashes\'\'. Although the origins of the term are not referred to in the text, the title served (along with the general hype created in Australia) to revive public interest in the legend. The first mention of \"the Ashes\" in [[Wisden Cricketers\' Almanack]] occurs in 1905, while \'\'Wisden\'\'\'s first account of the legend is in the 1922 edition.\n\n==Urn==\n{{Main|The Ashes urn}}\n[[File:Ashes Urn 1921.jpg|right|thumb|The earliest published photo of [[the Ashes urn]], from \'\'[[The Illustrated London News]]\'\', 1921]]\n[[File:Rupertswood mansion side angle shot.jpg|thumb|[[Rupertswood]] outside Melbourne, where the urn was presented to Bligh]]\nAs it took many years for the name \"the Ashes\" to be given to ongoing series between England and Australia, there was no concept of there being a representation of the ashes being presented to the winners. As late as 1925 the following verse appeared in \'\'The Cricketers Annual\'\':\n\n\n\nSo here\'s to Chapman, Hendren and Hobbs,\nGilligan, Woolley and Hearne\nMay they bring back to the Motherland,\nThe ashes which have no urn!\n
\n\nNevertheless, several attempts had been made to embody the Ashes in a physical memorial. Examples include one presented to Warner in 1904, another to Australian captain M. A. Noble in 1909, and another to Australian captain W. M. Woodfull in 1934.\n\nThe oldest, and the one to enjoy enduring fame, was the one presented to Bligh, later Lord Darnley, during the 1882?83 tour. The precise nature of the origin of [[The Ashes urn|this urn]] is matter of dispute. Based on a statement by Darnley in 1894, it was believed that a group of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victorian]] ladies, including Darnley\'s later wife [[Florence Bligh, Countess of Darnley|Florence Morphy]], made the presentation after the victory in the Third Test in 1883. More recent researchers, in particular Ronald Willis[{{Cite book| first=Ronald | last=Willis | title=Cricket\'s Biggest Mystery: The Ashes | isbn=0-7270-1768-3}}] and Joy Munns[{{Cite book| first=Joy | last=Munns | title=Beyond Reasonable Doubt: The birthplace of the Ashes | isbn=0-646-22153-1}}] have studied the tour in detail and concluded that the presentation was made after a private cricket match played over Christmas 1882 when the English team were guests of [[Sir William John Clarke|Sir William Clarke]], at his property \"[[Rupertswood]]\", in [[Sunbury, Victoria]]. This was before the matches had started. The prime evidence for this theory was provided by a descendant of Clarke.\n\nIn August 1926 Ivo Bligh (now Lord Darnley) displayed the Ashes urn at the \'\'[[Morning Post]]\'\' Decorative Art Exhibition held in the Central Hall, Westminster. He made the following statement about how he was given the urn:[{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/58247421?searchTerm=darnley%20cricket%20ashes&searchLimits= |title=Sunday Times (Perth) 15 August 1926 page 9S. Online Reference |publisher=Trove.nla.gov.au |date=15 August 1926 |accessdate=22 July 2013}}]\n\n{{quote|When in the autumn the English Eleven went to Australia it was said that they had come to Australia to \"fetch\" the ashes. England won two out of the three matches played against Murdoch\'s Australian Eleven, and after the third match some Melbourne ladies put some ashes into a small urn and gave them to me as captain of the English Eleven.}}\n\nA more detailed account of how the Ashes were given to Ivo Bligh was outlined by his wife, the Countess of Darnley, in 1930 during a speech at a cricket luncheon. Her speech was reported by the London Times as follows:[The Times (London), 27 June 1930. page 7.]\n\n{{quote|In 1882, she said, it was first spoken of when the Sporting Times, after the Australians had thoroughly beaten the English at the Oval, wrote an obituary in affectionate memory of English cricket \"whose demise was deeply lamented and the body would be cremated and taken to Australia\". Her husband, then Ivo Bligh, took a team to Australia in the following year. Punch had a poem containing the words \"When Ivo comes back with the urn\" and when Ivo Bligh wiped out the defeat Lady Clarke, wife of Sir W. J. Clarke, who entertained the English so lavishly, found a little wooden urn, burnt a bail, put the ashes in the urn, and wrapping it in a red velvet bag, put it into her husband\'s (Ivo Bligh\'s) hands. He had always regarded it as a great treasure.}}\n\nThere is another statement which is not totally clear made by Lord Darnley in 1921 about the timing of the presentation of the urn. He was interviewed in his home at Cobham Hall by Montague Grover and the report of this interview was as follows:[{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/66512851?searchTerm=%22cobham%20hall%22%20urn&searchLimits=l-decade=192 |title=Geraldton Guardian 15 February 1921, page 1. Online reference |publisher=Trove.nla.gov.au |date=15 February 1921 |accessdate=22 July 2013}}]\n\n{{quote|This urn was presented to Lord Darnley by some ladies of Melbourne after the final defeat of his team, and before he returned with the members to England.}}\n\nHe made a similar statement in 1926. The report of this statement in the Brisbane Courier was as follows:[{{cite web|url=http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/21053463?searchTerm=darnley%20ashes%20urn&searchLimits=l-decade=192|title=Brisbane Courier, 9 June 1926, page 7. Online reference |publisher=Trove.nla.gov.au |date=9 June 1926 |accessdate=22 July 2013}}]\n\n{{quote|The proudest possession of Lord Darnley is an earthenware urn containing the ashes which were presented to him by Melbourne residents when he captained the Englishmen in 1882. Though the team did not win, the urn containing the ashes was sent\'\' (could mean presented) \'\'to him just before leaving Melbourne.}}\n\nThe contents of the urn are also problematic; they were variously reported to be the remains of a stump, bail or the outer casing of a ball, but in 1998 Darnley\'s 82-year-old daughter-in-law said they were the remains of her mother-in-law\'s veil, casting a further layer of doubt on the matter. However, during the tour of Australia in 2006/7, the MCC official accompanying the urn said the veil legend had been discounted, and it was now \"95% certain\" that the urn contains the ashes of a cricket bail. Speaking on Channel Nine TV on 25 November 2006, he said x-rays of the urn had shown the pedestal and handles were cracked, and repair work had to be carried out. The urn is made of [[terracotta]] and is about {{convert|6|in|mm}} tall and may originally have been a perfume jar.\n\n[[File:Ashes song.jpg|thumb|The full version of the song from the \'\'[[Melbourne Punch]]\'\', the fourth verse of which is pasted onto the urn]]\nA label containing a six-line verse is pasted on the urn. This is the fourth verse of a song-lyric published in the \'\'[[Melbourne Punch]]\'\' on 1 February 1883:\n\n\n\nWhen [[Ivo Bligh, 8th Earl of Darnley|Ivo]] goes back with the urn, the urn;\n[[Studd brothers|Studds]], [[A G Steel|Steel]], [[Walter Read|Read]] and [[Edward Tylecote|Tylecote]] return, return;\nThe [[wikt:make the welkin ring|welkin]] will ring loud,\nThe great crowd will feel proud,\nSeeing [[Dick Barlow|Barlow]] and [[Billy Bates|Bates]] with the urn, the urn;\nAnd the rest coming home with the urn.\n
\n\nIn February 1883, just before the disputed Fourth Test, a velvet bag made by Mrs Ann Fletcher, the daughter of Joseph Hines Clarke and Marion Wright, both of [[Dublin]], was given to Bligh to contain the urn.\n\nDuring Darnley\'s lifetime there was little public knowledge of the urn, and no record of a published photograph exists before 1921. \'\'[[The Illustrated London News]]\'\' published this photo in January 1921 (shown above).\n\nWhen Darnley died in 1927 his widow presented the urn to the [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] and that was the key event in establishing the urn as the physical embodiment of the legendary ashes. MCC first displayed the urn in the Long Room at [[Lord\'s Cricket Ground]] and since 1953 in the MCC Cricket Museum at the ground. MCC\'s wish for it to be seen by as wide a range of cricket enthusiasts as possible has led to its being mistaken for an official trophy.\n\nIt is in fact a private memento, and for this reason it is never awarded to either England or Australia, but is kept permanently in the MCC Cricket Museum where it can be seen together with the specially made red and gold velvet bag and the scorecard of the 1882 match.\n\nBecause the urn itself is so delicate, it has been allowed to travel to Australia only twice. The first occasion was in 1988 for a museum tour as part of the [[Australian Bicentenary]] celebrations; the second was for the 2006/7 Ashes series.[{{Cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/6052544.stm | title=Ashes urn heads to Australia |publisher=BBC Sport | date=15 October 2006 | accessdate=8 November 2007}}] The urn arrived on 17 October 2006, going on display at the [[Museum of Sydney]]. It then toured to other states, with the final appearance at the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery on 21 January 2007.\n\nIn the 1990s, given Australia\'s long dominance of the Ashes and the popular acceptance of the Darnley urn as \"the Ashes\", the idea was mooted that the victorious team should be awarded the urn as a trophy and allowed to retain it until the next series. As its condition is fragile and it is a prized exhibit at the MCC Cricket Museum, the MCC would not agree. Furthermore, in 2002, Bligh\'s great-great-grandson Lord Clifton, the heir-apparent to the [[Earl of Darnley|Earldom of Darnley]], argued that the Ashes urn should not be returned to Australia because it belonged to his family and was given to the MCC only for safe keeping.\n\nAs a compromise, the MCC commissioned a trophy in the form of a larger replica of the urn in [[Waterford Crystal]], to award to the winning team of each series from 1998?99. This is known as the Ashes Trophy.[[http://www.lords.org/news/our-blogs/the-cricket-history-blog/what-is-the-ashes-trophy/ \"What is the Ashes Trophy?\"], Lord\'s website. Retrieved 1 September 2013.] This did little to diminish the status of the Darnley urn as the most important icon in cricket, the symbol of this old and keenly fought contest.\n\n==Series and matches==\n{{refimprove section|date=August 2011}}\n:\'\'See also: [[List of Ashes series]] for a full listing of all the Ashes series.\'\'\n\n===Quest to \"recover those ashes\"===\n{{See also|History of Test cricket (to 1883)#The Ashes legend|l1=History of Test cricket (to 1883): The Ashes legend}}\n[[File:Ivo Bligh Vanity Fair 7 April 1904.jpg|thumb|upright|The Honourable Ivo Bligh]]\nLater in 1882, following the famous Australian victory at The Oval, [[Ivo Bligh, 8th Earl of Darnley|Bligh]] led an England team to Australia, as he said, to \"recover those ashes\". Publicity surrounding the series was intense, and it was at some time during this series that the Ashes urn was crafted. Australia won the First Test by [[Result (cricket)|nine wickets]], but in the next two England were victorious. At the end of the Third Test, England were generally considered to have \"won back the Ashes\" 2?1. A fourth match was played, against a \"United Australian XI\", which was arguably stronger than the Australian sides that had competed in the previous three matches; this game, however, is not generally considered part of the 1882?83 series. It \'\'is\'\' counted as a Test, but as a standalone. This match ended in a victory for Australia\n\n===1884 to 1896===\nAfter Bligh\'s victory, there was an extended period of English dominance. The tours generally had fewer Tests in the 1880s and 1890s than people have grown accustomed to in more recent years, the first five-Test series taking place only in 1894?95. England lost only four Ashes Tests in the 1880s out of 23 played, and they won all the seven series contested.\n\nThere was more chopping and changing in the teams, given that there was no official board of selectors for each country (in 1887?88, two separate English teams were on tour in Australia) and popularity with the fans varied. The 1890s games were more closely fought, Australia taking their first series win since 1882 with a 2?1 victory in 1891?92. But England dominated, winning the next three series to 1896 despite continuing player disputes.\n\nThe [[English cricket team in Australia in 1894-95|1894?95]] series began in sensational fashion when England won the First Test at Sydney by just 10 runs having followed on. Australia had scored a massive 586 ([[Syd Gregory]] 201, [[George Giffen]] 161) and then dismissed England for 325. But England responded with 437 and then dramatically dismissed Australia for 166 with [[Bobby Peel]] taking 6 for 67. At the close of the second last day\'s play, Australia were 113?2, needing only 64 more runs. But heavy rain fell overnight and next morning the two slow left-arm bowlers, Peel and [[Johnny Briggs (cricketer)|Johnny Briggs]], were all but unplayable. England went on to win the series 3?2 after it had been all square before the Final Test, which England won by 6 wickets. The English heroes were Peel, with 27 wickets in the series at an average of 26.70, and [[Tom Richardson]], with 32 at 26.53.\n\nIn 1896 England under the captaincy of [[W. G. Grace]] won the series 2?1, and this marked the end of England\'s longest period of Ashes dominance.\n\n===1897 to 1902===\nAustralia resoundingly won the 1897?98 series by 4?1 under the captaincy of [[Harry Trott]]. His successor [[Joe Darling]] won the next three series in 1899, 1901?02 and the [[Australian cricket team in England in 1902|classic 1902 series]], which became one of the most famous in the history of Test cricket.\n\nFive matches were played in 1902 but the first two were drawn after being hit by bad weather. In the First Test (the first played at [[Edgbaston Cricket Ground|Edgbaston]]), after scoring 376 England bowled out Australia for 36 ([[Wilfred Rhodes]] 7/17) and reduced them to 46?2 when they followed on. Australia won the Third and Fourth Tests at [[Bramall Lane]] and [[Old Trafford Cricket Ground|Old Trafford]] respectively. At Old Trafford, Australia won by just 3 runs after [[Victor Trumper]] had scored 104 on a \"bad wicket\", reaching his hundred before lunch on the first day. England won the last Test at [[The Oval]] by one wicket. Chasing 263 to win, they slumped to 48?5 before [[Gilbert Jessop|Jessop\'s]] 104 gave them a chance. He reached his hundred in just 75 minutes. The last-wicket pair of [[George Herbert Hirst|George Hirst]] and Rhodes were required to score 15 runs for victory. When Rhodes joined him, Hirst reportedly said: \"We\'ll get them in singles, Wilfred.\" In fact, they scored thirteen singles and a two.[[http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/152487.html The glorious uncertainty]]\n\nThe period of Darling\'s captaincy saw the emergence of outstanding Australian players such as Trumper, [[Warwick Armstrong]], [[James Kelly (cricketer)|James Kelly]], [[Monty Noble]], [[Clem Hill]], [[Hugh Trumble]] and [[Ernie Jones (Australian sportsman)|Ernie Jones]].\n\n===Reviving the legend===\nAfter what the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] saw as the problems of the earlier professional and amateur series they decided to take control of organising tours themselves, and this led to the first MCC tour of Australia in 1903?04. England won it against the odds, and [[Plum Warner]], the England captain, wrote up his version of the tour in his book \'\'How We Recovered The Ashes\'\'.[[[Plum Warner]], \'\'How We Recovered The Ashes\'\', Longman, 1905] The title of this book revived the Ashes legend and it was after this that England v Australia series were customarily referred to as \"The Ashes\".\n\n===1905 to 1912===\nEngland and Australia were evenly matched until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Five more series took place between 1905 and 1912. In 1905 England\'s captain [[Stanley Jackson]] not only won the series 2?0, but also won the toss in all five matches and headed both the batting and the bowling averages. Monty Noble led Australia to victory in both 1907?08 and 1909. Then England won in 1911?12 by four matches to one. [[Jack Hobbs]] establishing himself as England\'s first-choice opening batsman with three centuries, while [[Frank Foster (cricketer)|Frank Foster]] (32 wickets at 21.62) and [[Sydney Barnes]] (34 wickets at 22.88) formed a formidable bowling partnership.\n\nEngland retained the Ashes when they won the [[1912 Triangular Tournament]], which also featured [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]]. The Australian touring party had been severely weakened by a [[Big Six cricket dispute of 1912|dispute]] between the board and players that caused [[Clem Hill]], [[Victor Trumper]], Warwick Armstrong, [[Tibby Cotter]], [[Sammy Carter]] and [[Vernon Ransford]] to be omitted.[Harte, pp. 251?256.]\n\n===1920 to 1933===\nAfter the war, Australia took firm control of both the Ashes and world cricket. For the first time, the tactic of using two express bowlers in tandem paid off as [[Jack Gregory (cricketer)|Jack Gregory]] and [[Ted McDonald]] crippled the English batting on a regular basis. Australia recorded overwhelming victories both in England and on home soil. They won the first eight matches in succession including a 5?0 [[whitewash (sport)|whitewash]] in [[English cricket team in Australia in 1920-21|1920?1921]] at the hands of Warwick Armstrong\'s team.\n\nThe ruthless and belligerent Armstrong led his team back to England in 1921 where his men lost only two games late in the tour to narrowly miss out of being the first team to complete a tour of England without defeat.\n\n[[File:Herbert Sutcliffe 1924.jpg|thumb|left|[[Herbert Sutcliffe]] sweeps [[Arthur Mailey]] during the first Ashes Test in Sydney, 1924.]]\nEngland won only one Test out of 15 from the end of the war until 1925.[Harte, pp. 274?276.][{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdb=team;team=AUS;class=testteam;filter=basic;opposition=0;notopposition=0;decade=0;homeaway=0;continent=0;country=0;notcountry=0;groundid=0;season=0;startdefault=1877-03-15;start=1877-03-15;enddefault=2007-11-20;end=2007-11-20;tourneyid=0;finals=0;daynight=0;toss=0;scheduledovers=0;scheduleddays=0;innings=0;followon=0;result=0;seriesresult=0;captainid=0;recent=;viewtype=resultlist;runslow=;runshigh=;wicketslow=;wicketshigh=;ballslow=;ballshigh=;overslow=;overshigh=;bpo=0;batevent=;conclow=;conchigh=;takenlow=;takenhigh=;ballsbowledlow=;ballsbowledhigh=;oversbowledlow=;oversbowledhigh=;bpobowled=0;bowlevent=;submit=1;.cgifields=viewtype |title=Statsguru ? Australia ? Tests ? Results list |publisher=[[Cricinfo]] |accessdate=21 December 2007}}]\n\nIn a rain-hit series in 1926, England managed to eke out a 1?0 victory with a win in the final Test at The Oval. Because the series was at stake, the match was to be \"timeless\", i.e., played to a finish. Australia had a narrow first innings lead of 22. Jack Hobbs and [[Herbert Sutcliffe]] took the score to 49?0 at the end of the second day, a lead of 27. Heavy rain fell overnight, and next day the pitch soon developed into a traditional sticky wicket. England seemed doomed to be bowled out cheaply and to lose the match. In spite of the very difficult batting conditions, however, Hobbs and Sutcliffe took their partnership to 172 before Hobbs was out for exactly 100. Sutcliffe went on to make 161 and England won the game comfortably.[Harte, pp. 298?301.] Australian captain [[Herbie Collins]] was stripped of all captaincy positions down to club level, and some accused him of throwing the match.\n\nAustralia\'s ageing post-war team broke up after 1926, with Collins, [[Charlie Macartney]] and [[Warren Bardsley]] all departing, and Gregory breaking down at the start of the 1928?29 series.\n\nDespite the debut of [[Donald Bradman]], the inexperienced Australians, led by [[Jack Ryder (cricketer)|Jack Ryder]], were heavily defeated, losing 4?1.[Harte, pp. 312?316.] England had a very strong batting side, with [[Wally Hammond]] contributing 905 runs at an average of 113.12, and Hobbs, Sutcliffe and [[Patsy Hendren]] all scoring heavily; the bowling was more than adequate, without being outstanding.\n\nIn 1930, [[Bill Woodfull]] led an extremely inexperienced team to England.\n\nBradman fulfilled his promise in the 1930 series when he scored 974 runs at 139.14, which remains a world record Test series aggregate. A modest Bradman can be heard in a 1930 recording saying \"I have always endeavoured to do my best for the side, and the few centuries that have come my way have been achieved in the hope of winning matches. My one idea when going into bat was to make runs for Australia.\"[{{cite web|url=http://aso.gov.au/titles/spoken-word/1930-australian-xi-ashes/|title=Don Bradman in \'The 1930 Australian XI: Winners of the Ashes\' on australianscreen online|accessdate=23 February 2011}}] In the [[Headingley Stadium|Headingley]] Test, he made 334, reaching 309* at the end of the first day, including a century before lunch. Bradman himself thought that his 254 in the preceding match, at [[Lord\'s Cricket Ground|Lord\'s]], was a better innings. England managed to stay in contention until the deciding final Test at The Oval, but yet another double hundred by Bradman, and 7/92 by [[Percy Hornibrook]] in England\'s second innings, enabled Australia to win by an innings and take the series 2?1. [[Clarrie Grimmett]]\'s 29 wickets at 31.89 for Australia in this high-scoring series were also important.\n\nAustralia had one of the strongest batting line-ups ever in the early 1930s, with Bradman, [[Archie Jackson]], [[Stan McCabe]], [[Bill Woodfull]] and [[Bill Ponsford]]. It was the prospect of bowling at this line-up that caused England\'s 1932?33 captain [[Douglas Jardine]] to adopt the tactic of fast [[leg theory]], better known as [[Bodyline]].\n\n[[File:4th Test Woodfull.jpg|right|thumb|[[Bill Woodfull]] evades a ball from [[Harold Larwood]] with [[Bodyline]] field settings.]]\n\nJardine instructed his [[fast bowling|fast bowlers]], most notably [[Harold Larwood]] and [[Bill Voce]], to bowl at the bodies of the Australian batsmen, with the goal of forcing them to defend their bodies with their bats, thus providing easy catches to a stacked [[leg side|leg-side]] field. Jardine insisted that the tactic was legitimate and called it \"leg theory\" but it was widely disparaged by its opponents, who dubbed it \"Bodyline\" (from \"on the line of the body\"). Although England decisively won the Ashes 4?1, Bodyline caused such a furore in Australia that diplomats had to intervene to prevent serious harm to Anglo-Australian relations, and the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] eventually changed the [[Laws of cricket]] to curtail the number of leg side fielders.\n\nJardine\'s comment was: \"I\'ve not travelled 6,000 miles to make friends. I\'m here to win the Ashes\".[{{cite news | url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/more_sport/article2387560.ece | location=London | work=The Times | title=Top 50 British achievements | first=Patrick | last=Kidd | date=4 September 2007}}]\n\nSome of the Australians wanted to use Bodyline in retaliation, but Woodfull flatly refused. He famously told England manager [[Pelham Warner]], \"There are two teams out there. One is playing cricket; the other is making no attempt to do so\" after the latter had come into the Australian rooms to express sympathy for a Larwood bouncer had struck the Australian skipper in the heart and felled him.[Cashman, Franks, Maxwell, Sainsbury, Stoddart, Weaver, Webster (1997). \'\'The A-Z of Australian cricketers\'\', pp. 322?323.]\n\n===1934 to 1953===\nOn the batting-friendly [[cricket pitch|wickets]] that prevailed in the late 1930s, most Tests up to the Second World War still gave results. It should be borne in mind that Tests in Australia prior to the war were all played to a finish. Many batting records were set in this period.\n\nThe 1934 Ashes series began with the notable absence of Larwood, Voce and Jardine. The MCC had made it clear, in light of the revelations of the bodyline series, that these players would not face Australia. It should be noted that the MCC, although it had earlier condoned and encouraged {{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} bodyline tactics in the 1932?33 series, laid the blame on Larwood when relations turned sour. Larwood was forced by the MCC to either apologise or be removed from the Test side. He went for the latter.\n\nAustralia recovered the Ashes in 1934 and held them until 1953, though no Test cricket was played during the Second World War.\n\nAs in 1930, the 1934 series was decided in the final Test at The Oval. Australia, batting first, posted a massive 701 in the first innings. Bradman (244) and Ponsford (266) were in record-breaking form with a partnership of 451 for the second wicket. England eventually faced a massive 707-run target for victory and failed, Australia winning the series 2?1.[Harte, pp. 356?357.] This made Woodfull the only captain to regain the Ashes and he retired upon his return to Australia.\n\nIn 1936?37 Bradman succeeded Woodfull as Australian captain. He started badly, losing the first two Tests heavily after Australia were caught on [[sticky wicket]]s. However, the Australians fought back and Bradman won his first series in charge 3?2.\n\nThe 1938 series was a high-scoring affair with two high-scoring draws, resulting in a 1?1 result, Australia retaining the Ashes. After the first two matches ended in stalemate and the Third Test at Old Trafford never started due to rain. Australia then scraped home by five wickets inside three days in a low-scoring match at Headingley to retain the urn. In the timeless Fifth Test at The Oval, the highlight was [[Len Hutton]]\'s then world-record score of 364 as England made 903-7 declared. Bradman and [[Jack Fingleton]] injured themselves during Hutton\'s marathon effort, and with only nine men, Australia fell to defeat by an innings and 579 runs,[[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/england/6109836.stm Classic Ashes clashes - 1938, The Oval] at [[BBC Sport]], 5 November 2006. Accessed 4 March 2006] the heaviest in Test history.\n\nThe Ashes resumed after the war when England toured in 1946?47 and, as in 1920?21, found that Australia had made the better post-war recovery. Still captained by Bradman and now featuring the potent new-ball partnership of [[Ray Lindwall]] and [[Keith Miller]], Australia were convincing 3?0 winners.\n\nAged 38 and having been unwell during the war, Bradman had been reluctant to play. He batted unconvincingly and reached 28 when he hit a ball to [[Jack Ikin]]; England believed it was a catch, but Bradman stood his ground, believing it to be a bump ball. The umpire ruled in the Australian captain\'s favour and he appeared to regain his fluency of yesteryear, scoring 187. Australia promptly seized the initiative, won the First Test convincingly and inaugurated a dominant post-war era. The controversy over the Ikin catch was one of the biggest disputes of the era.\n\nIn 1948 Australia set new standards, completely outplaying their hosts to win 4?0 with one draw. This [[Australian cricket team in England in 1948|Australian team]], led by Bradman, who turned 40 during his final tour of England, has gone down in history as \'\'The Invincibles\'\'. Playing 34 matches on tour?three of which were not first-class?and including the five Tests, they remained unbeaten, winning 27 and drawing 7.\n\nBradman\'s men were greeted by packed crowds across the country, and records for Test attendances in England were set in the [[Second Test, 1948 Ashes series|Second]] and [[Fourth Test, 1948 Ashes series|Fourth Tests]] at Lord\'s and Headingley respectively. Before a record attendance of spectators at Headingley, Australia set a world record by chasing down 404 on the last day for a seven-wicket victory.\n\nThe 1948 series ended with one of the most poignant moments in cricket history, as Bradman played his final innings for Australia in the [[Fifth Test, 1948 Ashes series|Fifth Test]] at The Oval, needing to score only four runs to end with a career [[batting average]] of exactly 100. However, Bradman made a second-ball duck, bowled by an [[Eric Hollies]] googly[[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/8036237.stm 1948 - Bradman\'s final innings duck] at [[BBC Sport]], 27 May 2009. Accessed 4 March 2015] that sent him into retirement with a career average of 99.94.\n\nBradman was succeeded as Australian captain by [[Lindsay Hassett]], who led the team to a 4?1 series victory in 1950?51. The series was not as one-sided as the number of wins suggest, with several tight matches.\n\nThe tide finally turned in 1953 when England won the final Test at The Oval to take the series 1?0, having narrowly avoided defeat in the preceding Test at Headingley. This was the beginning of one of the greatest periods in English cricket history with players such as captain Len Hutton, batsmen [[Denis Compton]], [[Peter May (cricketer)|Peter May]], [[Tom Graveney]], [[Colin Cowdrey]], bowlers [[Fred Trueman]], [[Brian Statham]], [[Alec Bedser]], [[Jim Laker]], [[Tony Lock]], wicket-keeper [[Godfrey Evans]] and all-rounder [[Trevor Bailey]].\n\n===1954 to 1971===\n[[File:Peter May.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Peter May (cricketer)|Peter May]] driving [[Bill Johnston (cricketer)|Bill Johnston]] on his way to a century at Sydney.]]\nIn [[English cricket team in Australia in 1954-55|1954?55]], Australia\'s batsmen had no answer to the pace of [[Frank Tyson]] and Statham. After winning the First Test by an innings after being controversially sent in by Hutton, Australia lost its way and England took a hat-trick of victories to win the series 3?1.[Harte, pp. 435?437.]\n\nA dramatic series in 1956 saw a record that will probably never be beaten: off-spinner [[Jim Laker]]\'s monumental effort at [[Old Trafford Cricket Ground|Old Trafford]] when he bowled 68 of 191 overs to take 19 out of 20 possible Australian wickets in the Fourth Test.[Harte, pp. 444?446.] It was Australia\'s second consecutive innings defeat in a wet summer, and the hosts were in strong positions in the two drawn Tests, in which half the playing time was washed out. Bradman rated the team that won the series 2?1 as England\'s best ever.\n\nEngland\'s dominance was not to last. Australia won 4?0 in 1958?59, having found a high-quality spinner of their own in new skipper [[Richie Benaud]], who took 31 wickets in the five-Test series, and paceman [[Alan Davidson (cricketer, born 1929)|Alan Davidson]], who took 24 wickets at 19.00. The series was overshadowed by the furore over various Australian bowlers, most notably [[Ian Meckiff]], whom the English management and media accused of [[throwing (cricket)|illegally throwing]] Australia to victory.\n\nAustralia consolidated their status as the leading team in world cricket with a hard-fought 2?1 away series. After narrowly winning the Second Test at Lord\'s, dubbed \"The Battle of the Ridge\" because of a protrusion on the pitch that caused erratic bounce, Australia mounted a comeback on the final day of the Fourth Test at Old Trafford and sealed the series after a heavy collapse during the English runchase.\n\nThe tempo of the play changed over the next four series in the 1960s, held in 1962?63, 1964, 1965?66 and 1968. The powerful array of bowlers that both countries boasted in the preceding decade moved into retirement, and their replacements were of lesser quality, making it more difficult to force a result. England failed to win any series during the 1960s, a period dominated by draws as teams found it more prudent to save face than risk losing. Of the 20 Tests played during the four series, Australia won four and England three. As they held the Ashes, Australian captains [[Bob Simpson (cricketer)|Bob Simpson]] and [[Bill Lawry]] were happy to adopt safety-first tactics and their strategy of sedate batting saw many draws. During this period, spectator attendances dropped and media condemnation increased, but Simpson and Lawry flatly disregarded the public dissatisfaction.\n\nIt was in the 1960s that the bipolar dominance of England and Australia in world cricket was seriously challenged for the first time. West Indies defeated England twice in the mid-1960s and South Africa, in two series before they were banned for [[apartheid]], completely outplayed Australia 3?1 and 4?0. Australia had lost 2?1 during a tour of the West Indies in 1964?65, the first time they had lost a series to any team other than England.\n\nIn 1970?71, [[Ray Illingworth]] led England to a 2?0 win in Australia, mainly due to [[John Snow (cricketer)|John Snow]]\'s fast bowling, and the prolific batting of [[Geoffrey Boycott]] and [[John Edrich]]. It was not until the last session of what was the 7th Test (one match having been abandoned without a ball bowled) that England\'s success was secured. Lawry was sacked after the Sixth Test after the selectors finally lost patience with Australia\'s lack of success and dour strategy. Lawry was not informed of the decision privately and heard his fate over the radio.[Harte, pp. 526?530.]\n\n===1972 to 1987===\nThe 1972 series finished 2?2, with England under Illingworth retaining the Ashes.[Harte, pp. 538?540.]\n\nIn the 1974?75 series, with the England team breaking up and their best batsman Geoff Boycott refusing to play, Australian pace bowlers [[Jeff Thomson]] and [[Dennis Lillee]] wreaked havoc. A 4?1 result was a fair reflection as England were left shell shocked.[Harte, pp. 557?559.] England then lost the 1975 series 0?1, but at least restored some pride under new captain [[Tony Greig]].[Harte, pp. 561?563.]\n\nAustralia won the 1977 Centenary Test[Harte, pp. 580?581.] which was not an Ashes contest, but then a storm broke as [[Kerry Packer]] announced his intention to form [[World Series Cricket]].[Harte, pp. 579?590] WSC affected all Test-playing nations but it weakened Australia especially as the bulk of its players had signed up with Packer; the Australian Cricket Board (ACB) would not select WSC-contracted players and an almost completely new Test team had to be formed. WSC came after an era during which the duopoly of Australian and English dominance dissipated; the Ashes had long been seen as a cricket world championship but the rise of the West Indies in the late 1970s challenged that view. The West Indies would go on to record resounding Test series wins over Australia and England and dominated world cricket until the 1990s.\n\nWith Greig having joined WSC, England appointed [[Mike Brearley]] as their captain and he enjoyed great success against Australia. Largely assisted by the return of Boycott, Brearley\'s men won the 1977 series 3?0 and then completed an overwhelming 5?1 series win against an Australian side missing its WSC players in 1978?79. [[Allan Border]] made his Test debut for Australia in 1978?79.\n\nBrearley retired from Test cricket in 1979 and was succeeded by [[Ian Botham]], who started the [[Australian cricket team in England in 1981|1981 series]] as England captain, by which time the WSC split had ended. After Australia took a 1?0 lead in the first two Tests, Botham was forced to resign or was sacked (depending on the source). Brearley surprisingly agreed to be reappointed before the Third Test at Headingley. This was a remarkable match in which Australia looked certain to take a 2?0 series lead after they had forced England to follow-on 227 runs behind. England, despite being 135 for 7, produced a second innings total of 356, Botham scoring 149*. Chasing just 130, Australia were sensationally dismissed for 111, [[Bob Willis]] taking 8?43. It was the first time since 1894?95 that a team following on had won a Test match. Under Brearley\'s leadership, England went on to win the next two matches before a drawn final match at The Oval.[Harte, pp. 627?628.]\n\nIn 1982?83 Australia had [[Greg Chappell]] back from WSC as captain, while the England team was weakened by the enforced omission of their [[South African rebel tours|South African tour rebels]], particularly [[Graham Gooch]] and [[John Emburey]]. Australia went 2?0 up after three Tests, but England won the Fourth Test by 3 runs (after a 70-run last wicket stand) to set up the final decider, which was drawn.[Harte, pp. 636?637.]\n\nIn 1985 [[David Gower]]\'s England team was strengthened by the return of Gooch and Emburey as well as the emergence at international level of [[Tim Robinson (cricketer)|Tim Robinson]] and [[Mike Gatting]]. Australia, now captained by [[Allan Border]], had themselves been weakened by a rebel South African tour, the loss of [[Terry Alderman]] being a particular factor. England won 3?1.\n\nDespite suffering heavy defeats against the West Indies during the 1980s, England continued to do well in the Ashes. Mike Gatting was the captain in 1986?87 but his team started badly and attracted some criticism.[{{cite web| url=http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/columns/content/story/268042.html | title=Can\'t bat, can\'t bowl, can\'t field | publisher=[[Cricinfo]] | last=Miller | first=Andrew |author2=Martin Williamson | date=16 November 2006 | accessdate=8 November 2007}}] Then [[Chris Broad]] scored three hundreds in successive Tests and bowling successes from [[Graham Dilley]] and [[Gladstone Small]] meant England won the series 2?1.[Harte, pp. 662?664.]\n\n===1989 to 2003===\n[[File:MCG99.jpg|right|thumb|[[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] Boxing Day Test 1998]]\nThe Australian team of 1989 was comparable to the great Australian teams of the past, and resoundingly defeated England 4?0.[Harte, pp. 679?682.] Well led by [[Allan Border]], the team included the young cricketers [[Mark Taylor (cricketer)|Mark Taylor]], [[Merv Hughes]], [[David Boon]], [[Ian Healy]] and [[Steve Waugh]], who were all to prove long-serving and successful Ashes competitors. England, now led once again by [[David Gower]], suffered from injuries and poor form. During the Fourth Test news broke that prominent England players had agreed to take part in a \"rebel tour\" of South Africa the following winter; three of them ([[Tim Robinson (cricketer)|Tim Robinson]], [[Neil Foster]] and [[John Emburey]]) were playing in the match, and were subsequently dropped from the England side.[{{cite web|url=http://content-www.cricinfo.com/wisdencricketer/content/story/139086.html|title=Rebels take a step too far (English rebel tour to South Africa, 1989)|first=Nick|last=Hoult|publisher=[[Cricinfo]]|date=July 2004|accessdate=22 October 2007}}]\n\nAustralia reached a cricketing peak in the 1990s and early 2000s, coupled with a general decline in England\'s fortunes. After re-establishing its credibility in 1989, Australia underlined its superiority with victories in the 1990?91, 1993, 1994?95, 1997, 1998?99, 2001 and 2002?03 series, all by convincing margins.\n\nGreat Australian players in the early years included batsmen Border, Boon, Taylor and Steve Waugh. The captaincy passed from Border to Taylor in the mid-1990s and then to Steve Waugh before the 2001 series. In the latter part of the 1990s Waugh himself, along with his twin brother [[Mark Waugh|Mark]], scored heavily for Australia and fast bowlers [[Glenn McGrath]] and [[Jason Gillespie]] made a serious impact, especially the former. The wicketkeeper-batsman position was held by [[Ian Healy]] for most of the 1990s and by [[Adam Gilchrist]] from 2001 to 2006?07. In the 2000s, batsmen [[Justin Langer]], [[Damien Martyn]] and [[Matthew Hayden]] became noted players for Australia. But the most dominant Australian player was leg-spinner [[Shane Warne]], whose first delivery in Ashes cricket in 1993, to dismiss Mike Gatting, became known as the [[Ball of the century]].\n\nAustralia\'s record between 1989 and 2005 had a significant impact on the statistics between the two sides. Before the 1989 series began, the win-loss ratio was almost even, with 87 test wins for Australia to England\'s 86, 74 tests having been drawn.[{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;opposition=1;orderby=won;spanmax2=1+Apr+1989;spanval2=span;team=2;template=results;trophy=1;type=team |title=Team records | Test matches | Cricinfo Statsguru | ESPN Cricinfo |publisher=Stats.cricinfo.com |accessdate=22 July 2013}}] By the 2005 series Australia\'s test wins had increased to 115 whereas England\'s had increased to only 93 (with 82 draws).[{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;opposition=1;orderby=won;spanmax2=1+Apr+2005;spanval2=span;team=2;template=results;trophy=1;type=team |title=Team records | Test matches | Cricinfo Statsguru | ESPN Cricinfo |publisher=Stats.cricinfo.com |accessdate=22 July 2013}}] In the period between 1989 and the beginning of the 2005 series, the two sides had played 43 times; Australia winning 28 times, England 7 times, with 8 draws. Only a single England victory had come in a match in which the Ashes were still at stake, namely the First Test of the 1997 series. All others were consolation victories when the Ashes had been secured by Australia.[{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdb=team;team=AUS;class=testteam;filter=basic;opposition=ENG;notopposition=0;decade=0;homeaway=0;continent=0;country=0;notcountry=0;groundid=0;season=0;startdefault=1877-03-15;start=1877-03-15;enddefault=2005-03-29;end=2005-03-29;tourneyid=0;finals=0;daynight=0;toss=0;scheduledovers=0;scheduleddays=0;innings=0;followon=0;result=0;seriesresult=0;captainid=0;recent=;viewtype=series;runslow=;runshigh=;wicketslow=;wicketshigh=;ballslow=;ballshigh=;overslow=;overshigh=;bpo=0;batevent=;conclow=;conchigh=;takenlow=;takenhigh=;ballsbowledlow=;ballsbowledhigh=;oversbowledlow=;oversbowledhigh=;bpobowled=0;bowlevent=;submit=1;.cgifields=viewtype |title=Cricinfo ? Statsguru ? Australia ? Tests ? Series record |publisher=Stats.cricinfo.com |date=17 June 2008 |accessdate=22 July 2013}}]\n\n===2005 to present===\n[[File:Trent Bridge, Flintoff century, 26 Aug 2005.jpg|left|thumb|[[Andrew Flintoff|Flintoff]] reaches 100 at [[Trent Bridge]].]]\nEngland were undefeated in Test matches through the 2004 calendar year. This elevated them to second in the [[ICC Test Championship]]. Hopes that the [[2005 Ashes series]] would be closely fought proved well-founded, the series remaining undecided as the closing session of the final Test began. Experienced journalists including Richie Benaud rated the series as the most exciting in living memory. It has been compared with the great series of the distant past, such as 1894?95 and 1902.{{citation needed|date=November 2013}}\n\nThe First Test at [[Lord\'s Cricket Ground|Lord\'s]] was convincingly won by Australia, but in the remaining four matches the teams were evenly matched and England fought back to win the Second Test by 2 runs, the smallest winning margin in Ashes history, and the second-smallest in all Tests. The rain-affected Third Test ended with the last two Australian batsmen holding out for a draw; and England won the Fourth Test by three wickets after forcing Australia to [[follow-on]] for the first time in 191 Tests being a period of 17 years. A draw in the final Test gave England victory in an Ashes series for the first time in 18 years and their first Ashes victory at home since 1985.\n\nAustralia regained the Ashes on their home turf in the [[2006-07 Ashes series|2006?07 series]] with a convincing 5?0 victory, only the second time an Ashes series has been won by that margin. [[Glenn McGrath]], [[Shane Warne]] and [[Justin Langer]] retired from Test cricket after that series, while [[Damien Martyn]] retired during the series.[{{cite web|url=http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/australia/content/player/6513.html|title=Damien Martyn|publisher=cricinfo}}]\n\n[[File:Ashes 2010-11 Sydney Test final wicket.jpg|thumb|right|[[Chris Tremlett]] bowls [[Michael Beer (cricketer)|Michael Beer]] to complete England\'s 3?1 Ashes victory on 7 January 2011]]\n\nThe [[2009 Ashes series|2009 series]] began with a tense draw in the First Test at [[SWALEC Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]], with England\'s last-wicket batsmen [[James Anderson (cricketer)|James Anderson]] and [[Monty Panesar]] surviving 69 balls. England then achieved its first Ashes win at Lord\'s since 1934 to go 1?0 up. After a rain-affected draw at Edgbaston, the fourth match at Headingley was convincingly won by Australia by an innings and 80 runs to level the series. Finally, England won the Fifth Test at [[The Oval]] by a margin of 197 runs to regain the Ashes. [[Andrew Flintoff]] retired from Test cricket soon afterwards.\n\nThe [[2010?11 Ashes series|2010?11 series]] was played in Australia. The First Test at Brisbane ended in a draw, but England won the Second Test, at Adelaide, by an innings and 71 runs. Australia came back with a victory at Perth in the Third Test. In the Fourth Test at Melbourne Cricket Ground, England batting second scored 513 to defeat Australia (98 and 258) by an innings and 157 runs. This gave England an unbeatable 2?1 lead in the series and so they retained the Ashes. England went on to win the series 3?1, beating Australia by an innings and 83 runs at Sydney in the Fifth Test. Australia, captained by Michael Clarke, batted first on a cloudy day after winning the toss and were bowled out for 280. England made 644, their highest innings total since 1938. England then bowled Australia out again for 281. England\'s series victory was its first on Australian soil for 24 years. The 2010?11 Ashes series was the only one in which a team had won three Tests by innings margins and it was the first time England had scored 500 or more four times in a single series.\n\nAustralia\'s build-up to the [[2013 Ashes series]] was far from ideal. [[Darren Lehmann]] took over as coach from [[Mickey Arthur]][[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-24/lehmann-named-australian-coach/4777030 Ashes 2013: Darren Lehmann replaces Mickey Arthur as Australia coach; Clarke steps down as selector] at [[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]], 24 June 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2013] following a string of poor results. A batting line-up weakened by the previous year\'s retirements of former captain [[Ricky Ponting]] and [[Mike Hussey]], was also shorn of opener [[David Warner (cricketer)|David Warner]], who was suspended for the start of the series following an off-field incident.[{{cite news |title=Ashes 2013: David Warner set for southern Africa match practice |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/23261135 |work=BBC Sport |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |date=10 July 2013 |accessdate=11 July 2013 }}] The tourists put those issues behind them to bowl England out for 215 after losing the toss in the First Test at Trent Bridge. In the face of high-class swing bowling from [[James Anderson (cricketer)|James Anderson]], who ended with 10 wickets in the match, Australia collapsed to 117?9. However, debutant 19-year-old [[Ashton Agar]] made a world-record 98 for a number 11 and [[Phillip Hughes|Phil Hughes]] an unbeaten 81 to secure an unlikely lead of 65. England\'s second-innings total of 375 set Australia a target of 311, against which they fell short by only 14 runs in a tense finish. In the Second Test, England beat Australia by 347 runs in a very one-sided contest. In the Third Test, held at a newly refurbished Old Trafford, Australia won the toss and elected to bat first. They amassed a commanding score of 527?7, led by captain Michael Clarke\'s 187. The pressure was then on the home side to avoid the follow-on. England scored 368 with a century for Kevin Pietersen. Australia\'s second innings score was 172?7 at the end of Day 4, characterised by batting order changes to achieve a fast run rate to allow enough time to bowl England out amid inclement weather forecasts. Australia declared overnight to post England a target of 332 to win. Contrary to expectations, play resumed with only a minor delay on Day 5, and with captain Alastair Cook being bowled out for 0 (his first duck in 26 innings as captain), Australia looked to be in with a significant chance of a win, keeping their series hopes alive. By lunch England were 37?3, but on resumption of play only 3 balls were bowled before rain stopped play. This rain persisted and, at 16:40, the captains shook hands and the match was declared a draw. With England 2?0 up with two tests to play, England retained the Ashes on 5 August 2013.[{{cite news |last=Sheringham |first=Sam |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/23579840 |title=Ashes 2013: England retain Ashes as rain forces Old Trafford draw |work=BBC Sport |date=5 August 2013 |accessdate=17 August 2013}}]\n\nIn the Fourth Test, England won the toss and batted first, putting on 238 runs, Australia took a narrow lead scoring 270 in their first innings. In the second innings England scored 330, Ian Bell top-scoring with 113. Needing only 298 runs to win Australia was in a strong position at 138/2, only 160 short with eight wickets in hand. Following a rain delay, Australia crashed to a 74-run defeat, losing all eight wickets for only 86 runs. England had taken 9 wickets in the final session of the fourth day. Stuart Broad was England\'s top wicket-taker in the match with 11 wickets. England held a 3?0 lead going into the final Fifth Test at The Oval.\n\nThe final Test was drawn. On the fourth day no play was possible due to rain, but on the final day after an aggressive Australian declaration, England came close to achieving its first 4?0 victory in an Ashes series. Play was abandoned, owing to bad light, denying a thrilling finish to the large crowd of spectators. There was media criticism of the new ICC rules requiring umpires to stop play when failing light was measured at a specified level.[{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/23836394 |title=Ashes 2013: Ashes 2013: England win series 3?0 after bad light ends Oval Test |work=BBC Sport |date=25 August 2013 |accessdate=29 August 2013}}]\n\n[[File:Australia won the Ashes 5-0.jpg|thumb|240px|Celebrations at the SCG after Australia won the Ashes 5-0 in 2014]]\nIn the second of two Ashes series held in 2013 (the series ended in 2014), this time hosted by Australia, the home team won the series five test matches to nil. This was the third time Australia has completed a clean sweep (or \"whitewash\") in Ashes history, a feat never matched by England.\n\nAustralia came into the next Ashes series in England as favourites to retain the Ashes. Although England won the first Test in Cardiff, Australia won comfortably in the second Test at Lords. In the next two Tests, the Australian batsmen struggled, being bowled out for 136 in the first innings at [[Edgbaston]] , with England proceeding to win by eight wickets. This was followed by Australia being bowled out for 60 as [[Stuart Broad]] took fastest five wickets and finished the spell with 8 for 15 in the first innings at Trent Bridge, the quickest - in terms of balls faced - a team has been bowled out in the first innings of a Test match. With victory by an innings and 78 runs on the morning of the third day of the Fourth Test, England regained the Ashes.\n\n==Summary of results and statistics==\n:\'\'See also: [[List of Ashes series]] for a full listing of all the Ashes series since 1882.\'\'\n{{Ashes timeline}}\n{{Ashes summary}}\nA team must win a series to gain the right to hold the Ashes. A drawn series results in the previous holders retaining the Ashes.\n\nAshes series have generally been played over five Test matches, although there have been four-match series (1938; 1975) and six-match series (1970?71; 1974?75; 1978?79; 1981; 1985; 1989; 1993 and 1997).\n\n69 series have been played, with Australia winning 32 and England 32. The remaining five series were drawn. {{As of|2015|08}}, the win?loss ratio in Ashes Tests[Australia and England have played an additional 16 Tests{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} but the Ashes were not at stake in those games. Including these Tests, the win?loss record stands at 139 Australian wins, 108 English wins, and 93 draws (up to and including the 4th Test of the 2015 series). See [http://stats.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;opposition=1;orderby=won;team=2;template=results;type=team Cricinfo statistics]] (from 1882) stands at 130 wins for Australia to 106 wins for England, with 89 draws.[{{cite web|url=http://stats.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/stats/index.html?class=1;filter=advanced;opposition=1;orderby=won;team=2;template=results;trophy=1;type=team |title=Team records | Test matches | Cricinfo Statsguru | ESPN Cricinfo |publisher=Stats.cricinfo.com |date=1 January 1970 |accessdate=22 July 2013}}]\n\nIn the 132 years since 1883, Australia have held the Ashes for approximately 78.5 years, and England for 53.5 years.\n\nAustralians have made 264 [[century (cricket)|centuries]] in Ashes Tests, of which 23 have been scores over 200, while Englishmen have scored 212 centuries, of which 10 have been over 200. Australians have taken 10 [[wicket]]s in a match on 41 occasions, Englishmen 38 times.{{citation needed|date=August 2013}}\n\nSeries results, up to and including the 2015 Ashes series:\n{|class=wikitable style=\"text-align:center\"\n|-\n!colspan=5|Overall Series Results\n|-\n!Nation !!Series !!Won !!Lost !!Drawn\n|-\n|style=\"text-align:left\"|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] || 69 || 32 || 32|| 5\n|-\n|style=\"text-align:left\"|{{flagicon|ENG}} [[England cricket team|England]] || 69 || 32 || 32 || 5\n|}\n\n==Match venues==\nThe series alternates between the United Kingdom and Australia, and within each country each of the usually five matches is held at a different [[List of Test cricket grounds|cricket ground]].\n\nIn Australia, the grounds currently used are [[The Gabba]] in Brisbane (first staged an England?Australia Test in the 1932?33 season), [[Adelaide Oval]] (1884?85), [[WACA Ground|the WACA]] in Perth (1970?71), the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] (MCG) (1876?77), and the [[Sydney Cricket Ground]] (SCG) (1881?82). A single Test was held at the [[Brisbane Exhibition Ground]] in 1928?29. Traditionally, Melbourne hosts the [[Boxing Day Test]] and Sydney hosts the New Year Test. Cricket Australia proposed that the 2010?11 series consist of six Tests, with the additional game to be played at [[Bellerive Oval]] in Hobart. The England and Wales Cricket Board declined and the series was played over five Tests.\n\nIn the UK, the grounds used are: [[County Ground, Old Trafford|Old Trafford]] in Manchester (1884), [[The Oval]] in [[Kennington]], [[South London]] (1884); [[Lord\'s Cricket Ground|Lord\'s]] in [[St John\'s Wood]], [[North London]] (1884); [[Trent Bridge]] at [[West Bridgford]], Nottinghamshire (1899), [[Headingley Stadium|Headingley]] in [[Leeds]] (1899); [[Edgbaston Cricket Ground|Edgbaston]] in Birmingham (1902); [[SWALEC Stadium|Sophia Gardens]] in [[Cardiff]] (2009); and the [[Riverside Ground]] in [[Chester-le-Street]], County Durham (2013); [[Rose Bowl (cricket ground)|Rose Bowl]] will host it in 2023. One Test was held at [[Bramall Lane]] in [[Sheffield]] in 1902. Traditionally the final Test of the series is played at the Oval.\n\n==Cultural references==\nThe popularity and reputation of the cricket series has led to other sports or games, and/or their followers, using the name \"Ashes\" for contests between England and Australia. The best-known and longest-running of these events is the [[rugby league]] rivalry between [[Great Britain national rugby league team|Great Britain]] and [[Australia national rugby league team|Australia]] (see [[The Ashes (rugby league)|rugby league \"Ashes\"]]). Use of the name \"Ashes\" was suggested by the Australian team when rugby league matches between the two countries commenced in 1908. Other examples included the television game shows \'\'[[Gladiators (TV series)|Gladiators]]\'\' and \'\'[[Sale of the Century (Australian game show)|Sale of the Century]]\'\', both of which broadcast special editions containing contestants from the Australian and English versions of the shows competing against each other.\n\nThe term became further genericised in Australia in the first half of the twentieth century, and was used to describe many sports rivalries or competitions outside the context of Australia vs England. The [[Australian rules football]] [[Interstate matches in Australian rules football|interstate carnival]], and the small silver casket which served as its trophy, were symbolically known as \"the Ashes\" of Australian football,[{{cite news|newspaper=Daily Herald|publication-place=Adelaide, SA|title=Carnival champions ? presentation of the Ashes|page=9}}] and was spoken of as such until at least the 1940s.[{{cite news|newspaper=Barrier Daily Truth|publication-place=Broken Hill, NSW|page=6|title=Victoria\'s football ashes|date=11 August 1947}}] The soccer rivalry between Australia and New Zealand was described as \"the soccer ashes of Australasia\" until as late as the 1950s;[{{cite news|newspaper=The Sporting Globe|publication-place=Melbourne, VIC|title=Kiwis to win the Ashes|author=J. O. Wishaw|page=7|date=25 August 1954}}] ashes from cigars smoked by the two countries\' captains were put into a casket in 1923 to make the trophy literal.[{{cite news|newspaper=Referee|publication-place=Sydney, NSW|page=16|title=The soccer ashes of Australasia|date=16 April 1924}}] The interstate [[rugby league]] [[State of Origin series#Interstate Rugby League prior to 1980|rivalry between Queensland and New South Wales]] was known for a time as Australia\'s rugby league ashes, and [[lawn bowls|bowls]] competitions between the two states also regularly used the term.[{{cite news|newspaper=The Brisbane Courier|publication-place=Brisbane, QLD|title=Bowls ? N.S.W. \"Knuts\" retain the \"Ashes\"|page=3|date=14 July 1920}}] Even some local rivalries, such southern Western Australia\'s annual Great Southern Football Carnival, were locally described as \"the ashes\".[{{cite news|newspaper=Great Southern Herald|publication-place=Katanning, WA|page=3|date=21 September 1935|title=Great Southern Football Carnival}}] This genericised usage is no longer common, and \"the Ashes\" would today be assumed only to apply to a contest between Australia and England.\n\nThe Ashes featured in the film \'\'[[The Final Test]]\'\', released in 1953, based on a television play by [[Terence Rattigan]]. It stars [[Jack Warner (actor)|Jack Warner]] as an England cricketer playing the last Test of his career, which is the last of an Ashes series; the film includes cameo appearances of English captain [[Len Hutton]] and other players[{{cite web|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0045769/|title=The Final Test (1953)|publisher=[[Internet Movie Database]]|accessdate=13 July 2013}}] who were part of England\'s 1953 triumph.\n\n[[Douglas Adams]]\'s 1982 science fiction comedy novel \'\'[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]\'\' ? the third part of \'\'[[The Hitchhiker\'s Guide to the Galaxy]]\'\' series ? features the urn containing the Ashes as a significant element of its plot. The urn is stolen by alien robots, as the burnt stump inside is part of a key needed to unlock the \"Wikkit Gate\" and release an imprisoned world called Krikkit.\n\n\'\'[[Bodyline (miniseries)|Bodyline]]\'\', a fictionalised television [[miniseries]] based on the \"[[Bodyline]]\" Ashes series of 1932?33, was screened in Australia in 1984.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} The cast included [[Gary Sweet]] as [[Donald Bradman]] and [[Hugo Weaving]] as England captain [[Douglas Jardine]].\n\nIn 2012, the second international instalment of the [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]] (UFC)-produced reality television series \'\'[[The Ultimate Fighter]]\'\' featured an Australian Team and an English team, and therefore called the season \'\'[[The Ultimate Fighter: The Smashes]]\'\'.\n\n==See also==\n{{Portal|Cricket}}\n* [[History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883]]\n* [[History of Test cricket from 1884 to 1889]]\n* [[History of Test cricket from 1890 to 1900]]\n\n==Notes==\n{{Reflist|30em}}\n\n==References==\n* {{Cite book| last = Berry | first = S. | year = 2006 | title = Cricket\'s Burning Passion | location = London | publisher=Methuen | isbn = 0-413-77627-1 }}\n* {{Cite book| last = Birley | first = D. | year = 2003 | title = A Social History of English Cricket | location = London |publisher=Aurum Press | isbn = 1-85410-941-3 }}\n* {{Cite book| last = Frith | first = D. | year = 1990 | title = Australia versus England: a pictorial history of every Test match since 1877 | location = Victoria (Australia) | publisher=Penguin Books | isbn = 0-670-90323-X }}\n* {{Cite book| last = Gibb | first = J. | year = 1979 | title = Test cricket records from 1877 | location = London | publisher=Collins | isbn = 0-00-411690-9 }}\n* {{Cite book| last = Gibson | first = A. | year = 1989 | title = Cricket Captains of England | location = London | publisher=Pavilion Books | isbn = 1-85145-395-4 }}\n* {{Cite book| last = Green | first = B. | year = 1979 | title = Wisden Anthology 1864?1900 | location = London | publisher=M & J/QA Press | isbn = 0-356-10732-9 }}\n* {{Cite book| last = Harte | first = Chris | year = 2003 | title = Penguin history of Australian cricket | publisher=Penguin Books | isbn = 0-670-04133-5 }}\n* {{Cite book| last = Munns | first = J. | year = 1994 | title = Beyond reasonable doubt ? Rupertswood, Sunbury ? the birthplace of the Ashes | location = Australia | publisher=Joy Munns | isbn = 0-646-22153-1 }}\n* {{Cite book| last = Warner | first = P. | year = 1987 | title = Lord\'s 1787?1945 | location = London | publisher=Pavilion Books | isbn = 1-85145-112-9 }}\n* {{Cite book| last = Warner | first = P. | year = 2004 | title = How we recovered the Ashes: MCC Tour 1903?1904 | location = London | publisher=Methuen | isbn = 0-413-77399-X }}\n* Willis, R. [http://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php?products_id=486 \'\'Cricket\'s Biggest Mystery: The Ashes\'\'], The Lutterworth Press (1987), ISBN 978-0-7188-2588-1.\n* {{Cite book| last = Wynne-Thomas | first = P. | year = 1989 | title = The complete history of cricket tours at home and abroad |location = London | publisher=Hamlyn | isbn = 0-600-55782-0 }}\n;Other\n* \'\'Wisden\'s Cricketers Almanack\'\' (various editions)\n\n==External links==\n{{Wikiquote}}\n{{Commons category|The Ashes}}\n* [http://www.cricinfo.com/engvaus2009/content/story/259985.html Cricinfo\'s Ashes] website\n* [http://www.mcc.org.au/News/Club%20Publications/~/media/Files/Origin%20of%20the%20Ashes.ashx The Origin of the Ashes ? Rex Harcourt]\n* Listen to a young [http://aso.gov.au/titles/spoken-word/1930-australian-xi-ashes/ Don Bradman speaking] after the 1930 Ashes tour\n\n{{Ashes Test series}}\n{{Compton?Miller Medal winners}}\n{{Named Test Cricket series}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Ashes, The}}\n[[Category:The Ashes| ]]\n[[Category:Australia in international cricket]]\n[[Category:Cricket awards and rankings]]\n[[Category:Cricket rivalries]]\n[[Category:England in international cricket]]\n[[Category:Recurring events established in 1882]]\n[[Category:Recurring sporting events established in 1882]]\n[[Category:Test cricket competitions]]'
'Analysis' '{{Other uses}}\n{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}\n\'\'\'Analysis\'\'\' is the process of breaking a [[complexity|complex topic]] or substance into smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of [[mathematics]] and [[logic]] since before [[Aristotle]] (384?322 [[Before Christ|B.C.]]), though \'\'analysis\'\' as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.[{{cite web|title=Analysis|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analysis/|work=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisher=Michael Beaney|accessdate=23 May 2012|author=Michael Beaney|year=Summer 2012}}]\n\nThe word comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] ???????? (\'\'analysis\'\', \"a breaking up\", from \'\'ana-\'\' \"up, throughout\" and \'\'lysis\'\' \"a loosening\").[{{cite web|title=analysis (n.)|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=analysis|work=ONLINE ETYMOLOGY DICTIONARY|publisher=Douglas Harper|accessdate=23 May 2012|author=Douglas Harper|year=2001?2012}}]\n\nAs a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to [[Alhazen]],[{{MacTutor|id=Al-Haytham|title=Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham}}] [[Ren? Descartes]] (\'\'[[Discourse on the Method]]\'\'), and [[Galileo Galilei]]. It has also been ascribed to [[Isaac Newton]], in the form of a practical method of physical discovery (which he did not name).\n\n==Applicants==\n\n===Chemistry===\n[[File:Clinical Chemistry Analyzer , ???????? ?????????? ?????????? 3.jpg|thumb|A clinical chemistry analyzer; hand shows size]]\n{{See also|Analytical chemistry|List of chemical analysis methods}}\nThe field of [[chemistry]] uses analysis in at least three ways: to identify the components of a particular [[chemical compound]] (qualitative analysis), to identify the proportions of components in a [[mixture]] (quantitative analysis), and to break down [[chemical process]]es and examine [[chemical reaction]]s between [[chemical element|elements]] of [[chemical matter|matter]]. For an example of its use, analysis of the concentration of elements is important in managing a [[nuclear reactor]], so [[nuclear scientist]]s will analyze [[neutron activation analysis|neutron activation]] to develop discrete measurements within vast samples. A [[matrix (chemical analysis)|matrix]] can have a considerable effect on the way a chemical analysis is conducted and the quality of its results. Analysis can be done manually or with a [[analyzer|device]]. Chemical analysis is an important element of [[national security]] among the [[great power|major world powers]] with [[Materials MASINT|materials]] [[measurement and signature intelligence]] (MASINT) capabilities.\n\n====Isotopes====\n{{See also|Isotope analysis|Isotope geochemistry}}\nChemists can use [[isotope analysis]] to assist analysts with issues in [[anthropology]], [[archeology]], [[food chemistry]], [[forensics]], [[geology]], and a host of other questions of [[physical science]]. Analysts can discern the origins of natural and man-made isotopes in the study of [[environmental radioactivity]].\n\n===Business===\n* [[Financial statement analysis]] ? the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm\n* [[Fundamental analysis]] ? a stock valuation method that uses financial analysis\n* [[Technical analysis]] ? the study of price action in securities markets in order to forecast future prices\n* [[Business analysis]] ? involves identifying the needs and determining the solutions to business problems\n* [[Price analysis]] ? involves the breakdown of a price to a unit figure\n* [[Market analysis]] ? consists of suppliers and customers, and price is determined by the interaction of [[supply and demand]]\n* [[Wireless Opportunity analysis]] - consists of customers trends within the wireless telephone industry, customer demand and experience determine purchasing behavior\n\n===Computer science===\n* [[Requirements analysis]] ? encompasses those tasks that go into determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users.\n* [[Competitive analysis (online algorithm)]] ? shows how online algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms\n* [[Lexical analysis]] ? the process of processing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols\n* [[Object-oriented analysis and design]] ? ? la [[Booch method|Booch]]\n* [[Program analysis (computer science)]] ? the process of automatically analyzing the behavior of computer programs\n* [[Semantic analysis (computer science)]] ? a pass by a compiler that adds semantical information to the parse tree and performs certain checks\n* [[Static code analysis]] ? the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that\n* [[Structured systems analysis and design methodology]] ? ? la [[Yourdon]]\n* [[Syntax analysis]] ? a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages, also known as parsing\n* [[Worst-case execution time]] ? determines the longest time that a piece of software can take to run\n\n===Economics===\n* [[Agroecosystem analysis]]\n* [[Input-output model]] if applied to a region, is called Regional Impact Multiplier System\n\n===Engineering===\n{{See also|Engineering analysis|Systems analysis}}\nAnalysts in the field of [[engineering]] look at [[Requirement analysis|requirements]], [[structural analysis|structures]], mechanisms, [[systems analysis|systems]] and [[dimensional analysis|dimensions]]. [[Electrical engineering|Electrical engineers]] analyse [[system analysis|systems]] in [[electronics]]. [[Whole-life cost|Life cycles]] and [[Accident analysis|system failures]] are broken down and studied by engineers. It is also looking at different factors incorporated within the design.\n\n===Intelligence===\n{{See also|Intelligence analysis}}\nThe field of [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] employs analysts to break down and understand a wide array of questions. [[Intelligence agency|Intelligence agencies]] may use [[heuristics]], [[inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[deductive reasoning]], [[social network analysis]], [[dynamic network analysis]], [[Social network#Social network analysis|link analysis]], and [[brainstorming]] to sort through problems they face. [[Military intelligence]] may explore issues through the use of [[game theory]], [[Red Team]]ing, and [[military simulation|wargaming]]. [[Signals intelligence]] applies [[cryptanalysis]] and [[frequency analysis]] to break [[code (cryptography)|codes]] and [[cipher]]s. [[Business intelligence]] applies theories of [[competitive intelligence|competitive intelligence analysis]] and [[competitor analysis]] to resolve questions in the [[marketplace]]. [[Police|Law enforcement]] intelligence applies a number of theories in [[crime analysis]].\n\n===Linguistics===\n{{See also|Linguistics}}\nLinguistics look at individual languages and [[language]] in general. It breaks language down and analyses its component parts: [[theoretical linguistics|theory]], [[phonology|sounds and their meaning]], [[pragmatics|utterance usage]], [[morphology (linguistics)|word origins]], the [[etymology|history of words]], the meaning of [[lexical semantics|words]] and [[phraseology|word combinations]], [[syntax|sentence construction]], [[discourse analysis|basic construction beyond the sentence level]], [[stylistics (linguistics)|stylistics]], and [[conversation analysis|conversation]]. It examines the above using [[computational linguistics|statistics and modeling]], and [[semantic analysis (linguistics)|semantics]]. It analyses language in context of [[anthropological linguistics|anthropology]], [[biolinguistics|biology]], [[evolutionary linguistics|evolution]], [[language geography|geography]], [[historical linguistics|history]], [[neurolinguistics|neurology]], [[psycholinguistics|psychology]], and [[sociolinguistics|sociology]]. It also takes the [[applied linguistics|applied]] approach, looking at [[developmental linguistics|individual language development]] and [[clinical linguistics|clinical]] issues.\n\n===Literature===\n[[Literary criticism]] is the analysis of [[literature]]. The focus can be as diverse as the analysis of [[analysis (Homer)|Homer]] or [[psychoanalytic literary criticism|Freud]]. While not all literary-critical methods are primarily analytical in nature, the main approach to the teaching of literature in the west since the mid-twentieth century, literary formal analysis or close reading, is. This method, rooted in the academic movement labelled [[The New Criticism]], approaches texts - chiefly short poems such as [[sonnets]], which by virtue of their small size and significant complexity lend themselves well to this type of analysis - as units of discourse that can be understood in themselves, without reference to biographical or historical frameworks. This method of analysis breaks up the text linguistically in a study of [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] (the formal analysis of meter) and phonic effects such as [[alliteration]] and [[rhyme]], and cognitively in examination of the interplay of syntactic structures, figurative language, and other elements of the poem that work to produce its larger effects.\n\n===Mathematics===\n{{Main|Mathematical analysis}}\n\nModern mathematical analysis is the study of infinite processes. It is the branch of mathematics that includes calculus. It can be applied in the study of [[classical mathematics|classical]] concepts of mathematics, such as [[real analysis|real numbers]], [[complex analysis|complex variables]], [[Fourier analysis|trigonometric functions]], and [[numerical analysis|algorithms]], or of [[non-classical analysis|non-classical]] concepts like [[constructivist analysis|constructivism]], [[harmonic analysis|harmonics]], [[non-standard analysis|infinity]], and [[functional analysis|vectors]].\n\n[[Florian Cajori]] explains in [[wikiquote:A History of Mathematics|\'\'A History of Mathematics\'\']] (1893) the difference between modern and ancient mathematical analysis, as distinct from logical analysis, as follows:\n\nThe terms \'\'synthesis\'\' and \'\'analysis\'\' are used in mathematics in a more special sense than in logic. In ancient mathematics they had a different meaning from what they now have. The oldest definition of mathematical analysis as opposed to synthesis is that given in [appended to] [[Euclid\'s Elements|Euclid]], XIII. 5, which in all probability was framed by [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]]: \"Analysis is the obtaining of the thing sought by assuming it and so reasoning up to an admitted truth; synthesis is the obtaining of the thing sought by reasoning up to the inference and proof of it.\" \n
\n\n\nThe analytic method is not conclusive, unless all operations involved in it are known to be reversible. To remove all doubt, the Greeks, as a rule, added to the analytic process a synthetic one, consisting of a reversion of all operations occurring in the analysis. Thus the aim of analysis was to aid in the discovery of synthetic proofs or solutions.\n
\n\nJames Gow uses a similar argument as Cajori, with the following clarification, in his [http://books.google.com/books?id=KSe_ZEmHaXEC& \'\'A Short History of Greek Mathematics\'\'] (1884):\n\n\nThe synthetic proof proceeds by shewing that the proposed new truth involves certain admitted truths. An analytic proof begins by an assumption, upon which a synthetic reasoning is founded. The Greeks distinguished \'\'theoretic\'\' from \'\'problematic\'\' analysis. A theoretic analysis is of the following kind. To \'\'prove\'\' that A is B, \'\'assume\'\' first that A is B. If so, then, since B is C and C is D and D is E, therefore A is E. If this be known a falsity, A is not B. But if this be a known truth and all the intermediate propositions be [[wiktionary:convertible#Adjective|convertible]], then the reverse process, A is E, E is D, D is C, C is B, therefore A is B, constitutes a synthetic proof of the original theorem. Problematic analysis is applied in all cases where it is proposed to construct a figure which is assumed to satisfy a given condition. The problem is then converted into some theorem which is involved in the condition and which is proved synthetically, and the steps of this synthetic proof taken backwards are a synthetic solution of the problem.\n
\n\n===Music===\n* [[Musical analysis]] ? a process attempting to answer the question \"How does this music work?\"\n* [[Schenkerian analysis]]\n\n===Philosophy===\n* [[Philosophical analysis]] ? a general term for the techniques used by philosophers\n* \'\'[[Analysis (journal)|Analysis]]\'\' is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy.\n\n===Psychotherapy===\n* [[Psychoanalysis]] ? seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients\' mental processes\n* [[Transactional analysis]]\n\n===Signal processing===\n* [[Finite element analysis]] ? a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis\n* [[Independent component analysis]]\n* [[Link quality analysis]] ? the analysis of signal quality\n* [[Path quality analysis]]\n* [[Fourier analysis]]\n\n===Statistics===\nIn [[statistics]], the term \'\'analysis\'\' may refer to any method used\nfor [[data analysis]]. Among the many such methods, some are:\n* [[Analysis of variance]] (ANOVA) ? a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts\n* [[Boolean analysis]] ? a method to find deterministic dependencies between variables in a sample, mostly used in exploratory data analysis\n* [[Cluster analysis]] ? techniques for grouping objects into a collection of groups (called clusters), based on some measure of proximity or similarity\n* [[Factor analysis]] ? a method to construct models describing a data set of observed variables in terms of a smaller set of unobserved variables (called factors)\n* [[Meta-analysis]] ? combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses\n* [[Multivariate analysis]] ? analysis of data involving several variables, such as by factor analysis, regression analysis, or principal component analysis\n* [[Principal component analysis]] ? transformation of a sample of correlated variables into uncorrelated variables (called principal components), mostly used in exploratory data analysis\n* [[Regression analysis]] ? techniques for analyzing the relationships between several variables in the data\n* [[Scale analysis (statistics)]] ? methods to analyze survey data by scoring responses on a numeric scale\n* [[Sensitivity analysis]] ? the study of how the variation in the output of a model depends on variations in the inputs\n* [[Sequential analysis]] ? evaluation of sampled data as it is collected, until the criterion of a stopping rule is met\n* [[Spatial analysis]] ? the study of entities using geometric or geographic properties\n* [[Time-series analysis]] ? methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals\n\n===Other===\n* [[Aura analysis]] ? a technique in which supporters of the method claim that the body\'s aura, or energy field is analysed\n* [[Bowling analysis]] ? Analysis of the performance of [[cricket]] players\n\n* [[Lithic analysis]] ? the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques\n* [[Protocol analysis]] ? a means for extracting persons\' thoughts while they are performing a task\n\n==See also==\n{{Commons category|Analysis}}\n* [[portal:thinking#Topics related to Thinking|List of thinking-related topics]]\n* [[Formal analysis]]\n* [[Methodology]]\n* [[Scientific method]]\n\n==References==\n{{Reflist}}\n\n==External links==\n{{Wikiquote}}\n{{Wiktionary|Analysis|analysis}}\n* {{InPho|idea|1508}}\n* {{SEP|analysis}}\n* {{PhilPapers|category|conceptual-analysis}}\n\n{{analytic philosophy}}\n\n[[Category:Critical thinking]]\n[[Category:Thought]]\n[[Category:Research methods]]\n[[Category:Analysis| ]]\n\n[[ar:?????]]'
'Abner_Doubleday' '{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2013}}\n{{Infobox military person\n|name=Abner Doubleday\n|birth_date = {{Birth date|1819|06|26}} \n|death_date = {{Death date and age|1893|01|26|1819|06|26}}\n|image=Doubledayo.jpg\n|caption=Abner Doubleday, Major General USA\n|birth_place=[[Ballston Spa, New York|Ballston Spa]], [[New York]]\n|death_place=[[Mendham, New Jersey|Mendham]], [[New Jersey]]\n|placeofburial=[[Arlington National Cemetery]]\n|placeofburial_label= Place of burial\n|allegiance= [[United States of America]]
[[Union (American Civil War)|Union]]\n|branch= [[United States Army]]
[[Union Army]]\n|serviceyears=1842-1873\n|rank= [[File:Union army maj gen rank insignia.jpg|35px]] [[Major general (United States)|Major General]]\n|commands= [[I Corps (Union Army)|I Corps]]
35th U.S. Infantry
[[24th Infantry Regiment (United States)|24th U.S. Infantry]]\n|battles=[[Mexican?American War]]
[[Seminole Wars#Third Seminole War|Seminole Wars]]
[[American Civil War]]
[[American Indian Wars]]\n}}\n\n\'\'\'Abner Doubleday\'\'\' (June 26, 1819 ? January 26, 1893) was a career [[United States Army]] officer and [[Union Army|Union]] general in the [[American Civil War]]. He fired the first shot in defense of [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]], the opening battle of the war, and had a pivotal role in the early fighting at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]]. Gettysburg was his finest hour, but his relief by [[Major general (United States)|Maj. Gen.]] [[George G. Meade]] caused lasting enmity between the two men. In [[San Francisco]], after the war, he obtained a patent on the [[cable car (railway)|cable car]] railway that still runs there. In his final years in [[New Jersey]], he was a prominent member and later president of the [[Theosophical Society]]. Doubleday has been historically credited with [[Doubleday myth|inventing baseball]], although this appears to be untrue.[Kirsch, pp. xiii-xiv.][{{cite web | url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140926001539/http://baseballhall.org/museum/experience/history | title=The Doubleday myth is Cooperstown\'s gain: Pastoral village has become the heart of baseball folklore | publisher=National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum | accessdate=September 20, 2012}}]\n\n==Early years==\nDoubleday, the son of [[Ulysses F. Doubleday]] and Hester Donnelly, was born in [[Ballston Spa, New York]], in a small house on the corner of Washington and Fenwick streets. As a child, Abner was very short. The family all slept in the attic loft of the one-room house. His paternal grandfather, also named Abner, had fought in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. His maternal grandfather joined the army at 14 and was a mounted messenger for [[George Washington]]. His father, Ulysses F. Doubleday, fought in the [[War of 1812]], published newspapers and books, and represented [[Auburn, New York]] for four years in the [[United States Congress]].[Beckenbaugh, pp. 611-12.] Abner spent his childhood in Auburn and later was sent to [[Cooperstown, New York|Cooperstown]] to live with his uncle and attend a private preparatory high school. He practiced as a surveyor and civil engineer for two years before entering the [[United States Military Academy]][Tagg, pp. 25-27.] in 1838. He graduated in 1842, 24th in a class of 56 cadets, and was commissioned a [[Brevet (military)|brevet]] [[second lieutenant#United States|second lieutenant]] in the 3rd U.S. Artillery.[Eicher, p. 213.] In 1852, he married Mary Hewitt of [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]].[[http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fdo39 Texas Handbook]]\n\n==Military career==\n===Early commands and Fort Sumter===\n[[File:Abner Doubleday at Fort Sumter, SC IMG 4534.JPG|200px|right|thumb|Doubleday photo displayed at [[Fort Sumter]] National Monument in [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]] harbor]]\n[[File:Fort Sumter Medal.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Fort Sumter]] Medal bearing the likeness of [[Robert Anderson (major)|Major Robert Anderson]] which was presented to Abner Doubleday]]\nDoubleday initially served in coastal garrisons and then in the [[Mexican?American War]] from 1846 to 1848 and the [[Seminole Wars]] from 1856 to 1858. In 1858 he was transferred to [[Fort Moultrie]] in [[Charleston Harbor]] serving under Colonel [[John L. Gardner (brigadier general)|John L. Gardner]]. By the start of the Civil War, he was a [[Captain (United Staets O-3)|captain]] and second in command in the garrison at [[Fort Sumter]], under [[Major (United States)|Major]] [[Robert Anderson (Civil War)|Robert Anderson]].[ He aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] bombardment on April 12, 1861. He subsequently referred to himself as the \"hero of Sumter\" for this role.][\n\n===Brigade and division command in Virginia===\nDoubleday was promoted to major on May 14, 1861, and commanded the Artillery Department in the [[Shenandoah Valley]] from June to August, and then the artillery for [[Major general (United States)|Major General]] [[Nathaniel Banks]]\'s division of the [[Army of the Potomac]]. He was appointed [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] of volunteers on February 3, 1862, and was assigned to duty in northern Virginia while the Army of the Potomac conducted the [[Peninsula Campaign]]. His first combat assignment was to lead the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, [[III Corps (Union Army)|III Corps]] of the [[Army of Virginia]] during the [[Northern Virginia Campaign]]. In the actions at Brawner\'s farm, just before the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]], he took the initiative to send two of his regiments to reinforce Brigadier General [[John Gibbon]]\'s brigade against a larger Confederate force, fighting it to a standstill. (Personal initiative was required since his division commander, Brig. Gen. [[Rufus King (Civil War General)|Rufus King]], was incapacitated by an [[epilepsy|epileptic]] seizure at the time. He was replaced by Brigadier General [[John P. Hatch]].)][Langellier, pp. 43, 45, 49.] His men were routed when they encountered Major General [[James Longstreet]]\'s corps, but by the following day, August 30, he took command of the division when Hatch was wounded, and he led his men to cover the retreat of the Union Army.[\n\nDoubleday again led the division, now assigned to the [[I Corps (Union Army)|I Corps]] of the Army of the Potomac, after [[Battle of South Mountain|South Mountain]], where Hatch was wounded again. At [[Battle of Antietam|Antietam]], he led his men into the deadly fighting in the Cornfield and the West Woods, and one colonel described him as a \"gallant officer ... remarkably cool and at the very front of battle.\"][ He was wounded when an artillery shell exploded near his horse, throwing him to the ground in a violent fall. He received a brevet promotion to [[Lieutenant colonel (United States)|lieutenant colonel]] in the [[Regular Army (United States)|regular army]] for his actions at Antietam and was promoted in March 1863 to [[Major General#United States|major general]] of volunteers, to rank from November 29, 1862.][Eicher, p. 703.] At [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]] in December 1862, his division mostly sat idle. During the winter, the I Corps was reorganized and Doubleday assumed command of the 3rd Division. At [[Battle of Chancellorsville|Chancellorsville]] in May 1863, the division was kept in reserve.[\n\n===Gettysburg===\n[[File:DoubledayBirthplace.jpg|thumb|Birthplace in Ballston Spa]]\n[[File:Doubleday and wife (1).jpg|thumb|right|Doubleday and his wife, Mary]]\nAt the start of the [[Battle of Gettysburg]], July 1, 1863, Doubleday\'s division was the second infantry division on the field to reinforce the cavalry division of Brigadier General [[John Buford]]. When his corps commander, Major General [[John F. Reynolds]], was killed very early in the fighting, Doubleday found himself in command of the corps at 10:50 am. His men fought well in the morning, putting up a stout resistance, but as overwhelming Confederate forces massed against them, their line eventually broke and they retreated back through the town of [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania|Gettysburg]] to the relative safety of [[Cemetery Hill]] south of town. It was Doubleday\'s finest performance during the war, five hours leading 9,500 men against ten Confederate brigades that numbered more than 16,000. Seven of those brigades sustained casualties that ranged from 35 to 50 percent, indicating the ferocity of the Union defense. On Cemetery Hill, however, the I Corps could muster only a third of its men as effective for duty, and the corps was essentially destroyed as a combat force for the rest of the battle; it would be decommissioned in March 1864, its surviving units consolidated into other corps.][\n\nOn July 2, 1863, Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. [[George G. Meade]] replaced Doubleday with Major General [[John Newton (engineer)|John Newton]], a more junior officer from another corps. The ostensible reason was a false report by [[XI Corps (Union Army)|XI Corps]] commander Major General [[Oliver O. Howard]] that Doubleday\'s corps broke first, causing the entire Union line to collapse, but Meade also had a long history of disdain for Doubleday\'s combat effectiveness, dating back to South Mountain. Doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against Meade, but he returned to division command and fought well for the remainder of the battle.][ He was wounded in the neck on the second day of Gettysburg and received a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army for his service.][ He formally requested reinstatement as I Corps commander, but Meade refused, and Doubleday left Gettysburg on July 7 for Washington.][Coddington, pp. 690-91.]\n\nDoubleday\'s indecision as a commander in the war resulted in his uncomplimentary nickname \"Forty-Eight Hours.\"[\n\n===Washington===\nDoubleday assumed administrative duties in the defenses of [[Washington, D.C.]], where he was in charge of courts martial, which gave him legal experience that he used after the war. His only return to combat was directing a portion of the defenses against the attack by Confederate [[Lieutenant General (CSA)|Lieutenant General]] [[Jubal A. Early]] in the [[Valley Campaigns of 1864]]. Also while in Washington, Doubleday testified against George Meade at the [[United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War]], criticizing him harshly over his conduct of the Battle of Gettysburg.][ While in Washington, Doubleday remained a loyal [[History of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] and staunch supporter of President [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Doubleday rode with Lincoln on the train to Gettysburg for the [[Gettysburg Address]] and Col. and Mrs. Doubleday attended events with Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln in Washington.\n\n==Postbellum career==\nAfter the Civil War, Doubleday mustered out of the volunteer service on August 24, 1865, reverted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and became the colonel of the 35th U.S. Infantry in September 1867. He was stationed in [[San Francisco]] from 1869 through 1871 and he took out a patent for the [[cable car (railway)|cable car]] railway that still runs there, receiving a charter for its operation, but signing away his rights when he was reassigned. In 1871 he commanded the [[24th Infantry Regiment (United States)|24th U.S. Infantry]], an all African-American regiment with headquarters at [[Fort McKavett]], [[Texas]].][ He retired in 1873\n\nIn the 1870s, he was listed in the New York business directory as lawyer.\n\nDoubleday spent much of his time writing. He published two important works on the Civil War: \'\'Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie\'\' (1876), and \'\'Chancellorsville and Gettysburg\'\' (1882), the latter being a volume of the series \'\'Campaigns of the Civil War\'\'.][\n\n==Theosophy==\nIn the summer of 1878 Doubleday lived in [[Mendham Township, New Jersey]], and became a prominent member of the [[Theosophical Society]]. When two of the founders of that society, [[Helena Blavatsky]] and [[Henry Steel Olcott]], moved to India at the end of that year, he was constituted as the president of the American body. Another prominent member was [[Thomas A. Edison]].][Gomes, [http://www.theosociety.org/pasadena/sunrise/40-90-1/th-tsgom.htm Theosophy article]]\n\n==Death==\n[[File:Doubleday\'s Tombstone.JPG|thumb|right|Doubleday\'s tombstone in Arlington National Cemetery]]\nDoubleday died of heart disease. Doubleday\'s body was laid in state in New York\'s City Hall and then was taken to Washington by train[ from Mendham Township, and is buried in [[Arlington National Cemetery]] in Arlington, Virginia.][\n\n==Baseball==\n{{Main|Doubleday myth}}\n\nAlthough Doubleday achieved minor fame as a competent combat general with experience in many important Civil War battles, he is more widely remembered as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball, in [[Elihu Phinney]]\'s cow pasture in [[Cooperstown, New York]], in 1839.\n\nThe [[Mills Commission]], chaired by [[Abraham G. Mills]], the fourth president of the [[National League]], was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball. The committee\'s final report, on December 30, 1907, stated, in part, that \"the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.\" It concluded by saying, \"in the years to come, in the view of the hundreds of thousands of people who are devoted to baseball, and the millions who will be, Abner Doubleday\'s fame will rest evenly, if not quite as much, upon the fact that he was its inventor ... as upon his brilliant and distinguished career as an officer in the Federal Army.\"][Kirsch, pp. xiii.]\n\nHowever, there is considerable evidence to dispute this claim. Baseball historian George B. Kirsch has described the results of the Mills Commission as a \"myth\". He wrote, \"Robert Henderson, Harold Seymour, and other scholars have since debunked the Doubleday-Cooperstown myth, which nonetheless remains powerful in the American imagination because of the efforts of Major League Baseball and the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown.\" At his death, Doubleday left many letters and papers, none of which describe baseball or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game, and his \'\'New York Times\'\' obituary did not mention the game at all. Chairman Mills himself, who had been a Civil War colleague of Doubleday and a member of the honor guard for Doubleday\'s body as it lay in state in New York City, never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor. Doubleday was a cadet at West Point in the year of the alleged invention and his family had moved away from Cooperstown the prior year. Furthermore, the primary testimony to the commission that connected baseball to Doubleday was that of Abner Graves, whose credibility is questionable; a few years later, he shot his wife to death and was committed to an institution for the criminally insane for the rest of his life.[ Part of the confusion could stem from there being another man by the same name in Cooperstown in 1839.][Morris, Peter. \'\'But Didn\'t We Have Fun\'\'. Ivan R. Dee Publishing. 2008]\n\nDespite the lack of solid evidence linking Doubleday to the origins of baseball, Cooperstown, New York became the new home of what is today the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum]] in 1937.\n\nThere may have been some relationship to the baseball as a national sport, and Abner Doubleday. While the modern rules of baseball were formulated in New York during the 1840s, it was the scattering of New Yorkers exposed to these rules throughout the country, that spread not only baseball, but also the \"New York Rules\", thereby harmonizing the rules, and being a catalyst for its growth. Doubleday was a high ranking officer, whose duties included seeing to provisions for the US Army fighting throughout the south and border states. For the morale of the men, he is said to have provisioned balls and bats for the men.[Bats,Balls, and Bullets Essay by George B. Kirsch Civil War Times Illustrated: May 1998 pages 30-37]\n\n==Namesakes and honors==\nThere is a monument to Doubleday at Gettysburg erected by his men, admirers, and the state of New York. There is a {{convert|7|ft|m|adj=on}} obelisk monument at [[Arlington National Cemetery]] where he is buried, located about {{convert|130|ft|m}} behind the Lee Mansion. There was a movement to petition the [[United States Postmaster General|postmaster general]] to issue a U.S. postage stamp for him in 2011, commemorating the 150th anniversary of Fort Sumter. [[Doubleday Field]] is a [[minor league baseball]] [[stadium]] named for Abner Doubleday, located in [[Cooperstown, New York]], near the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum|Baseball Hall of Fame]]. It hosted the annual [[Doubleday Field#halloffamegame|Hall of Fame Game]], an [[exhibition game]] between two [[Major League Baseball|major league]] teams that was played from 1940 until 2008.[{{cite news | url = http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/2008-11-18-hall-of-fame-game_N.htm | work=USA Today | title=Hall of Fame schedules replacement game for 2009 | date=November 18, 2008}}]\n\nThe [[Auburn Doubledays]] are a [[minor league baseball]] team based in Doubleday\'s hometown of [[Auburn, New York]].\n\nDoubleday Field at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, where the [[Army Black Knights]] play at [[Johnson Stadium at Doubleday Field|Johnson Stadium]], is named in Doubleday\'s honor.\n\nThe Abner Doubleday Little League and Babe Ruth Fields in Ballston Spa, New York, the town of his birth. The house of his birth still stands in the middle of town and there is a monument to him on Front Street.\n\nA sign at the [[Doubleday Hill Monument]], erected in [[Williamsport, Maryland]] to commemorate Doubleday\'s occupation of a hill there during the Civil War, claims he invented the game in 1835.\n\nMendham Borough, NJ and Mendham Township, NJ held a municipal holiday known as \"Abner Doubleday Day\" for numerous years in the General\'s honor and commissioned a plaque near the sight of his home in the borough in 1998, even though the borough was known as Mendham Township back then.\n\n{{libship honor|name=Abner Doubleday|type=his}}\n\n==In popular culture==\nIn the movie \'\'[[The Ridiculous 6]]\'\', Doubleday is portrayed by [[John Turturro]]. The character organizes the first game of baseball between the six main characters and a group of Chinese immigrants, creating the rules as he goes, primarily to allow him to win.\n\n==See also==\n{{Portal|Biography|United States Army|American Civil War}}\n* [[List of American Civil War generals#Union-D|List of American Civil War generals]]\n* [[William Webb Ellis]], sometimes apocryphally credited with inventing [[rugby football]]\n* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Doubleday, Abner}}\n\n==Notes==\n{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}\n\n==References==\n* {{cite book| last= Coddington |first=Edwin B. | title = The Gettysburg Campaign: A Study in Command| year = 1968| place=New York |publisher = Simon & Schuster }}\n* {{cite book| last = Doubleday| first = Abner| title = My Life in the Old Army: The Reminiscences of Abner Doubleday | year = 1998|place=Fort Worth | publisher = Texas Christian University Press| isbn = 978-0-87565-185-9 }}\n* {{cite book|last1=Eicher |first1=John H. |last2=Eicher |first2=David J. | title = Civil War High Commands| year = 2001|place=Stanford, Calif. | publisher = Stanford University Press| isbn = 978-0-8047-3641-1 }}\n* Gomes, Michael. \"[http://www.theosociety.org/pasadena/sunrise/40-90-1/th-tsgom.htm Abner Doubleday and Theosophy in America: 1879-1884]\". \'\'Sunrise\'\', April/May 1991.\n* {{cite book| last1= Heidler |first1=David Stephen |last2=Heidler |first2=Jeanne T. |last3=Coles |first3=David J. |title = Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History| year = 2000|place=Santa Barbara, Calif. | publisher = ABC-CLIO| isbn = 978-0-393-04758-5 }}\n* {{cite book| last= Kirsch|first=George B. | title = Baseball in Blue and Gray: The National Pastime During the Civil War|place=Princeton, N.J. |publisher=Princeton University Press | year = 2002| isbn = 978-0-691-05733-0 }}\n* {{cite book|last=Langellier |first=John P. | title = Second Manassas 1862: Robert E. Lee\'s Greatest Victory|place=Oxford, Eng. |publisher=Osprey Military | year = 2002|isbn = 978-1-84176-230-2 }}\n* {{cite book| last = Tagg| first = Larry| title = The Generals of Gettysburg: The Leaders of America\'s Greatest Battle|place=Campbell, Calif. | year = 1998| publisher = Savas Publishing Company| isbn = 978-1-882810-30-7 | url = http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/ }}\n* \"[http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fdo39 Doubleday, Abner]\" in \'\'The Handbook of Texas\'\'.\n\n==Further reading==\n* {{cite book| last = Doubleday| first = Abner| title = Chancellorsville and Gettysburg| url = https://books.google.com/?id=3HIFAAAAQAAJ|place=New York | year = 1882| publisher = C. Scribner\'s Sons }}\n* {{cite book | last = Doubleday | first = Abner | authorlink = | title = Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-61 | publisher = Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company | year = 1998 | location = Charleston, SC | url = https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=mEwIAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA13 | isbn = 1-877853-40-2 }}\n* {{cite book| last = Hyde| first = Bill| title = The Union Generals Speak: The Meade Hearings on the Battle of Gettysburg|place=Baton Rouge, La. | year = 2003| publisher = Louisiana State University Press| isbn = 978-0-8071-2581-6 }}\n\n==External links==\n{{Commons category|Abner Doubleday}}\n* {{Gutenberg author |id=Abner+Doubleday}}\n* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Abner Doubleday}}\n* {{Librivox author |id=1867}}\n* [http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/doubledy.htm Biography at Arlington Cemetery]\n* [http://www.blavatskyarchives.com/doubledaygeneralindefense.htm \'\'Defense of Madame Blavatsky\'\']\n* [http://www.baseballhalloffame.com/about/history.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]\n\n{{S-start}}\n{{S-mil}}\n{{s-bef|before=[[John F. Reynolds]]}} \n{{s-ttl|title= Commander of the [[I Corps (Union Army)|I Corps]]|years=July 1, 1863 ? July 2, 1863}} \n{{s-aft|after=[[John Newton (engineer)]]}}\n{{S-end}}\n\n{{Gettysburg figures|state=collapsed}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Doubleday, Abner}}\n[[Category:1819 births]]\n[[Category:1893 deaths]]\n[[Category:American military personnel of the Mexican?American War]]\n[[Category:American people of English descent]]\n[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery]]\n[[Category:History of baseball]]\n[[Category:People from Auburn, New York]]\n[[Category:People from Ballston Spa, New York]]\n[[Category:People of New York in the American Civil War]]\n[[Category:Union Army generals]]\n[[Category:United States Army generals]]\n[[Category:United States Military Academy alumni]]\n[[Category:Writers from New York]]\n[[Category:New York Republicans]]'
'America\'s_National_Game' '{{Unreferenced|date=May 2011}}\n{{italic title}}\n\n[[File:Americasnationalgame.jpg|right|thumb]]\'\'\'\'\'America\'s National Game\'\'\'\'\' is a book by [[Albert Spalding]], published in 1911 detailing the early history of the sport of [[baseball]]. Much of the story is told first-hand, since Spalding had been involved in the game, first as a player and later an administrator, since the 1850s. In addition to his personal recollections, he had access to the records of [[Henry Chadwick (writer)|Henry Chadwick]], the game\'s first [[baseball statistics|statistician]] and archivist. Spalding was, however, known to aggrandise his role in the major moments in baseball\'s history.\n\n==See also==\n*[[History of baseball]]\n\n==References==\n{{Reflist}}\n\n[[Category:1911 books]]\n[[Category:Baseball books]]\n\n\n{{sport-book-stub}}'
'Analysis' '{{WikiProject Systems|class=c|importance=high}}\n{{WikiProject Philosophy|class=c|importance=high|logic=yes|analytic=yes}}\n\n==Untitled==\nThis stub article was spun off from a disambiguation page originally at this location, now located at [[analysis (disambiguation)]].--[[User:Father Goose|Father Goose]] ([[User talk:Father Goose|talk]]) 06:28, 24 November 2007 (UTC)\n\n==Spelling==\nThis article inconsistently uses the American and British spellings of \"analyze/analyse\". Is wikipedia policy not to use the British spelling? ?Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/72.69.209.146|72.69.209.146]] ([[User talk:72.69.209.146|talk]]) 18:32, 28 March 2010 (UTC) \n==What is this?==\nfollowing pasted from the section \"other\" on the Analysis main page.
\n\"\'\'Another form, is that of depth. To read and understand so much so that it can only comprehended by one who can put two and two together. Hard to find, you say? Well, then, I suggest that you analyze more than just this, my friend. Find what it means to you, determine how it reflects upon the world that surrounds you. Then, tell me you don\'t understand what it is to analyze.\'\'\"
\nIs there any meaning to this section? If not, it should be deleted. If there is, it needs serious clarification. ?Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/85.82.231.84|85.82.231.84]] ([[User talk:85.82.231.84|talk]]) 17:15, 15 March 2009 (UTC) \n\n:Edit has been removed, and notification posted to IP address\'s talk page. [[User:Greyskinnedboy|Greyskinnedboy]] ([[User talk:Greyskinnedboy|talk]]) 21:10, 15 March 2009 (UTC)\n\nI have reservations about the sentence\n\nMathematical analysis can be applied in the study of classical concepts of real numbers, such as the complex variables, trigonometric functions, and algorithms, or of non-classical concepts like constructivism, harmonics, infinity, and vectors.\n\nI think the sentence could read something like\n\nThe method of mathematical analysis can be applied in the classical study of real numbers, complex variables, functions, and algorithms, and in the modern study of concepts like constructivism, harmonics, infinity, and vectors.\n\nI may edit this sentence if there\'s no objection.\n\nI may also insert some comments (here or elsewhere) comparing the analytical approach with the synthetic approach (taken, for example in abstract algebra). I think mathematical investigation is a back-and-forth between these two approaches. For example, at the end of his \"analysis\", Dedekind synthesizes the reals from the rationals (and ultimately set theory). On the other hand the synthetic construction of group theory is brought about by analyzing groups using local information about subgroups. Any thoughts?[[User:Aliotra|Aliotra]] ([[User talk:Aliotra|talk]]) 00:13, 28 March 2009 (UTC)\n\n:Sounds good to me. [[WP:BB|Be bold]]!--[[User:Father Goose|Father Goose]] ([[User talk:Father Goose|talk]]) 07:39, 28 March 2009 (UTC)\n\n==history merge==\nThe following entries in the history were in the redirect that was at this title, keep this in mind when interpreting diffs\n* 20:17, 9 January 2008 (diff) . . R\'n\'B (Talk | contribs | block) (54 bytes) (db-movedab for malplaced disambiguation page)\n* 05:39, 30 November 2007 (diff) . . East718 (Talk | contribs | block) (39 bytes) (afd)\n* 16:28, 24 November 2007 (diff) . . SmackBot (Talk | contribs | block) (925 bytes) (Date/fix the maintenance tags or gen fixes using AWB)\n* 01:04, 24 November 2007 (diff) . . Nousernamesleft (Talk | contribs | block) (904 bytes) (afd)\n* 15:23, 19 November 2007 (diff) . . Jeodesic (Talk | contribs | block) (591 bytes) (Stub sort)\n* 20:05, 18 November 2007 (diff) . . Father Goose (Talk | contribs | block) (583 bytes) (separated into stub article (this) and disambig page)\n* 20:01, 18 November 2007 (diff) . . Father Goose (Talk | contribs | block) (39 bytes) (moved Analysis to Analysis (disambiguation) over redirect: going to split this into an article (analysis) and this disambig page)\n?[[User talk:Random832|Random832]] 21:14, 9 January 2008 (UTC)\n\n== Form of the article ==\n\nI would recommend that this article take a more textual approach, explaining why analysis is important in a wide range of fields and how it is used in each. It seems particularly unsatisfying to me to subsist with two articles that might as well be called [[List of articles that include the word analysis]] and [[List of articles that include the word analytic or analytical]]. I like to sort things more than most folks, but the analysis article could be so much more than it is at the moment. There are many forms of analysis that belong in this article that don\'t have the word analysis, analytic, or analytical in them: [[game theory]], [[heuristics]], [[inductive reasoning]], and [[deductive reasoning]]? What about [[simulation]], [[scientific modelling]], [[brainstorming]], [[mindmap]], [[Red Team]], [[negotiation theory]], [[timeline]] studies, [[intelligence]], [[Morphological analysis (problem-solving)|problem solving]], and on and on. I\'m willing to help on fixing it over the long term, if others are interested in going in that direction with this article. I can contribute on the qualitative side of things, but I lack background to do much good on the quantitative, math and hard sciences side. --[[User:Pnoble805|Pat]] ([[User talk:Pnoble805|talk]]) 00:58, 16 February 2008 (UTC)\n\n:You better believe I endorse that suggestion. I tried to get that started a few months ago by splitting it into a stub article and the current disambiguation page, but [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Analysis|a spasm of myopia interceded]]. Wikipedia should unmistakably have an actual article on the general subject of \"analysis\", and I will support your efforts in any way I can.--[[User:Father Goose|Father Goose]] ([[User talk:Father Goose|talk]]) 04:20, 16 February 2008 (UTC)\n\n:: It is thesis writing time for me through end of April, but I\'ll add what I can til then and begin work in earnest over the summer. I\'ll try talking it up at grad school to see if I can enlist recruits, but we\'re all unfortunately in the same boat. Maybe the first years? I\'m glad you agree. --[[User:Pnoble805|Pat]] ([[User talk:Pnoble805|talk]]) 18:43, 18 February 2008 (UTC)\n:: I did a sample workup using the Chemistry section. How does that look? I used the see also feature, then drew in other ideas. I\'m not a chemist, so that section can be reworked if I got it wrong. But the concept of text instead of list is the main point. --[[User:Pnoble805|Pat]] ([[User talk:Pnoble805|talk]]) 00:54, 19 February 2008 (UTC)\n\n:::That\'s an excellent way to approach it. I changed the section headings a bit to get away from the \"disambiguation\" format style. I\'ll do some copyediting later and maybe convert a section or two myself. Thanks for getting the work underway.--[[User:Father Goose|Father Goose]] ([[User talk:Father Goose|talk]]) 21:43, 21 February 2008 (UTC)\n\n::::As requested, I changed the Chemistry section to account for the three major parts of Analytical Chemistry [[User:Laburke|Laburke]] ([[User talk:Laburke|talk]]) 16:22, 7 May 2010 (UTC)\n\nWhat is now not even english:\n\"As a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to Ibn al-Haytham,[1] Descartes (Discourse on the Method), Galileo, and Isaac Newton, as a practical method of physical discovery.\"\nShould read:\n\"As a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to Ibn al-Haytham,[1] Descartes (Discourse on the Method) and Galileo. It has also been ascribed to Isaac Newton, but only as a practical method of physical discovery (which he did not name or formally describe.)\"\nI believe someone with lamentably low language skills edited out the original meaning and left us with an impossible grammatical construction to boot. So I\'ve added in some tedious disambiguation to try to foolproof the sentence from futher \"improvement\" at the cost of time and ease of reading - but I can\'t make this change so could someone else do so please?\n[[User:Ndaniels|Ndaniels]] ([[User talk:Ndaniels|talk]]) 18:17, 17 September 2008 (UTC)\n\nSomeone removed the Chemistry section completely and added what looked like an ad for an organization. I restored the Chemistry section and did some work on the Literature and Mathematics sections. --[[User:Pnoble805|Pat]] ([[User talk:Pnoble805|talk]]) 16:12, 11 November 2008 (UTC)\n\n== sup ==\n\ni nead help with my project and this is not helping. my teacher asked if i could do an anlysis of how my project affects Canadians and the world. \np.s Twilight rocks ?Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/70.24.149.99|70.24.149.99]] ([[User talk:70.24.149.99|talk]]) 17:48, 15 January 2009 (UTC) \n\n== What cannot be analyzed? ==\nThis aritcle would find more use if a section for the coditions that are to be fulfilled are addressed. I have added a line under heading identity - The one without the identities which are common to all cannot be analyzed. I suggest the authors of this article to add a section on - what cannot be analyzed.\n\n== Misuse of sources ==\n\n{{User|Jagged 85}} is one of the main contributors to Wikipedia (over 67,000 edits; he\'s ranked [[Wikipedia:List_of_Wikipedians_by_number_of_edits|198 in the number of edits]]), and most of his edits have to do with Islamic science, technology and philosophy. This editor has persistently [[Wikipedia:Requests for comment/Jagged 85/Evidence|misused sources here over several years]]. This editor\'s contributions are always well provided with citations, but examination of these sources often reveals either a blatant misrepresentation of those sources or a selective interpretation, going beyond any reasonable interpretation of the authors\' intent. Please see: [[Wikipedia:Requests for comment/Jagged 85]]. I searched the page history, and found one edit by Jagged 85 in [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analysis&diff=189624894&oldid=189015222 February 2008] and 2 more edits in [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analysis&offset=20100205081541&limit=3&action=history March 2010]. [[User:Tobby72|Tobby72]] ([[User talk:Tobby72|talk]]) 17:11, 12 June 2010 (UTC)\n\n== Newton ==\nJust as a notion for some more persistent contributor for possible consideration: currently prominently presented sentence \"It has also been ascribed to Isaac Newton, in the form of a practical method of physical discovery (which he did not name or formally describe).\" is not entirely and irrevocably true. \'\'As in Mathematicks, so in Natural Philosophy, the Investigation of difficult Things by the Method of Analysis, ought ever to precede the Method of Composition. This Analysis consists in making Experiments and Observations, and in drawing general Conclusions from them by Induction, and admitting of no Objections against the Conclusions, but such as are taken from Experiments, or other certain Truths. For Hypotheses are not to be regarded in experimental Philosophy.\'\' [http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk/view/texts/normalized/NATP00051 Third book of \"Opticks\", p. 380] (1718 edition) In my humble opinion, this actually counts as both naming and describing (although this matter can definitely be disputed). --[[User:Oop|Oop]] ([[User talk:Oop|talk]]) 00:08, 16 May 2011 (UTC)\n\n== Hans Niels Jahangir - Hans Niels Jahnke ==\n\nWho is Hans Niels Jahnke? He wrote a book on mathematical analysis, so his definition of the word is only from a mathematical (i.e. the analysis of mathematical functions and their derivatives) point of view. The word analysis itself has a much broader meaning. ? Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/90.184.76.204|90.184.76.204]] ([[User talk:90.184.76.204|talk]]) 21:00, 20 June 2011 (UTC) \n\n: I just removed the quotation, for the reason you gave. ?[[User:BenKovitz|Ben Kovitz]] ([[User talk:BenKovitz|talk]]) 12:39, 2 October 2011 (UTC)\n\n== Merge with disambiguation page? ==\n\n[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analysis&oldid=453522112 Currently], the page is essentially a list of topics with \"analysis\" in their name, with links to them and brief descriptions?and no topic of its own. The lead suggests that there is a distinct topic of \"analysis\", but the body doesn\'t describe it. There appears to be no primary topic to describe. The actual [[Analysis (disambiguation)]] page lists only a few topics. Is there any reason to keep this a separate page from [[Analysis (disambiguation)]]? ?[[User:BenKovitz|Ben Kovitz]] ([[User talk:BenKovitz|talk]]) 12:56, 2 October 2011 (UTC)\n\n==british english==\nthis page wasn\'t written in british english, a user changed it unilaterally for some reason.'
'Amplitude_modulation' '{{Modulation techniques}}\n\'\'\'Amplitude modulation\'\'\' (AM) is a [[modulation]] technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a [[radio]] [[carrier wave]]. In amplitude modulation, the [[amplitude]] (signal strength) of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the waveform being transmitted. That waveform may, for instance, correspond to the sounds to be reproduced by a [[loudspeaker]], or the light intensity of television pixels. This technique contrasts with [[frequency modulation]], in which the [[frequency]] of the [[carrier signal]] is varied, and [[phase modulation]], in which its [[Phase (waves)|phase]] is varied.\n\nAM was the earliest modulation method used to transmit voice by radio. It was developed during the first two decades of the 20th century beginning with Roberto Landell De Moura and [[Reginald Fessenden]]\'s [[radiotelephone]] experiments in 1900.[http://www.aminharadio.com/radio/files/Artigo-Revista-PCP-USA.pdf] It remains in use today in many forms of communication; for example it is used in portable [[two way radio]]s, [[Airband|VHF aircraft radio]], [[Citizen\'s Band Radio]] and in computer [[modem]]s.{{citation needed|date=January 2014}} \"AM\" is often used to refer to [[mediumwave]] [[AM broadcasting|AM radio broadcasting]].\n\n[[File:Amfm3-en-de.gif|thumb|right|250px|Fig 1: An audio signal (top) may be carried by a [[carrier signal]] using AM or FM methods.|alt=Animation of audio, AM and FM modulated carriers.]]\n\n==Forms of amplitude modulation==\n{{refimprove section|date=February 2015}}\nIn [[electronics]] and [[telecommunications]], [[modulation]] means varying some aspect of a higher frequency [[continuous wave]] [[carrier signal]] with an information-bearing modulation waveform, such as an [[audio signal]] which represents sound, or a [[video signal]] which represents images, so the carrier will \"carry\" the information. When it reaches its destination, the information signal is extracted from the modulated carrier by [[demodulation]].\n\nIn amplitude modulation, the [[amplitude]] or \"strength\" of the carrier oscillations is what is varied. For example, in AM radio communication, a [[continuous wave]] radio-frequency signal (a [[Sine wave|sinusoid]]al [[carrier wave]]) has its [[amplitude]] [[modulation|modulated]] by an audio waveform before transmission. The audio waveform modifies the amplitude of the carrier wave and determines the \'\'[[Envelope (waves)|envelope]]\'\' of the waveform. In the [[frequency domain]], amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the [[carrier frequency]] and two adjacent [[sideband]]s. Each sideband is equal in [[bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]] to that of the modulating signal, and is a mirror image of the other. Standard AM is thus sometimes called \"double-sideband amplitude modulation\" (DSB-AM) to distinguish it from more sophisticated modulation methods also based on AM.\n\nOne disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques (not only standard AM) is that the receiver amplifies and detects [[Noise (radio)|noise]] and [[electromagnetic interference]] in equal proportion to the signal. Increasing the received [[signal to noise ratio]], say, by a factor of 10 (a 10 [[decibel]] improvement), thus would require increasing the transmitter power by a factor of 10. This is in contrast to [[frequency modulation]] (FM) and [[digital radio]] where the effect of such noise following [[demodulation]] is strongly reduced so long as the received signal is well above the threshold for reception. For this reason AM broadcast is not favored for music and [[high fidelity]] broadcasting, but rather for voice communications and broadcasts (sports, news, [[talk radio]] etc.).\n\nAnother disadvantage of AM is that it is inefficient in power usage; at least two-thirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal. The carrier signal contains none of the original information being transmitted (voice, video, data, etc.). However its presence provides a simple means of demodulation using [[envelope detector|envelope detection]], providing a frequency and phase reference to extract the modulation from the sidebands. In some modulation systems based on AM, a lower transmitter power is required through partial or total elimination of the carrier component, however receivers for these signals are more complex and costly. The receiver may regenerate a copy of the carrier frequency (usually as shifted to the [[intermediate frequency]]) from a greatly reduced \"pilot\" carrier (in [[reduced-carrier transmission]] or DSB-RC) to use in the demodulation process. Even with the carrier totally eliminated in [[double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission]], carrier regeneration is possible using a [[Costas loop|Costas phase-locked loop]]. This doesn\'t work however for [[single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission]] (SSB-SC), leading to the characteristic \"Donald Duck\" sound from such receivers when slightly detuned. Single sideband is nevertheless used widely in [[amateur radio]] and other voice communications both due to its power efficiency and bandwidth efficiency (cutting the RF bandwidth in half compared to standard AM). On the other hand, in [[medium wave]] and [[short wave]] broadcasting, standard AM with the full carrier allows for reception using inexpensive receivers. The broadcaster absorbs the extra power cost to greatly increase potential audience.\n\nAn additional function provided by the carrier in standard AM, but which is lost in either single or double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, is that it provides an amplitude reference. In the receiver, the [[automatic gain control]] (AGC) responds to the carrier so that the reproduced audio level stays in a fixed proportion to the original modulation. On the other hand, with suppressed-carrier transmissions there is \'\'no\'\' transmitted power during pauses in the modulation, so the AGC must respond to peaks of the transmitted power during peaks in the modulation. This typically involves a so-called \'\'fast attack, slow decay\'\' circuit which holds the AGC level for a second or more following such peaks, in between syllables or short pauses in the program. This is very acceptable for communications radios, where [[Dynamic range compression|compression]] of the audio aids intelligibility. However it is absolutely undesired for music or normal broadcast programming, where a faithful reproduction of the original program, including its varying modulation levels, is expected.\n\nA trivial form of AM which can be used for transmitting [[Digital data|binary data]] is [[on-off keying]], the simplest form of \'\'[[amplitude-shift keying]]\'\', in which [[Binary numeral system|ones and zeros]] are represented by the presence or absence of a carrier. On-off keying is likewise used by radio amateurs to transmit [[Morse code]] where it is known as [[continuous wave]] (CW) operation, even though the transmission is not strictly \"continuous.\"\n\n===ITU designations===\n\nIn 1982, the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) designated the types of amplitude modulation:\n{|class=\"wikitable\"\n|-\n!Designation!!Description\n|-\n|A3E||[[double sideband|double-sideband]] a full-carrier - the basic Amplitude modulation scheme\n|-\n|R3E||[[Single-sideband modulation|single-sideband]] [[Reduced-carrier transmission|reduced-carrier]]\n|-\n|H3E||[[Single-sideband modulation|single-sideband]] full-carrier\n|-\n|J3E||[[Single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission|single-sideband suppressed-carrier]]\n|-\n|B8E||[[independent sideband|independent-sideband]] emission\n|-\n|C3F||[[vestigal sideband|vestigial-sideband]]\n|-\n|Lincompex||linked [[compander|compressor and expander]]\n|}\n\n==History==\n[[Image:Telefunken arc radiotelephone.jpg|thumb|One of the crude pre-vacuum tube AM transmitters, a Telefunken [[arc converter|arc transmitter]] from 1906. The carrier wave is generated by 6 electric arcs in the vertical tubes, connected to a [[tuned circuit]]. Modulation is done by the large carbon microphone \'\'(cone shape)\'\' in the antenna lead. ]]\n[[Image:Meissner radiotelephone transmitter.jpg|thumb|One of the first [[vacuum tube]] AM radio transmitters, built by Meissner in 1913 with an early triode tube by Robert von Lieben. He used it in a historic 36 km (24 mi) voice transmission from Berlin to Nauen, Germany. Compare its small size with above transmitter. ]]\n\nAlthough AM was used in a few crude experiments in multiplex telegraph and telephone transmission in the late 1800s,[{{cite book \n | last = Bray\n | first = John \n | title = Innovation and the Communications Revolution: From the Victorian Pioneers to Broadband Internet\n | publisher = Inst. of Electrical Engineers\n | year = 2002\n | location = \n | pages = 59, 61?62\n | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=3h7R36Y0yFUC&pg=PA61\n | doi = \n | id = \n | isbn = 0852962185}}] the practical development of amplitude modulation is synonymous with the development between 1900 and 1920 of \"[[radiotelephone]]\" transmission, that is, the effort to send sound (audio) by radio waves. The first radio transmitters, called [[spark gap transmitter]]s, transmitted information by [[wireless telegraphy]], using different length pulses of carrier wave to spell out text messages in [[Morse code]]. They couldn\'t transmit audio because the carrier consisted of strings of [[damped wave]]s, pulses of radio waves that declined to zero, that sounded like a buzz in receivers. In effect they were already amplitude modulated.\n\n===Continuous waves===\nThe first AM transmission was made by Canadian researcher [[Reginald Fessenden]] on 23 December 1900 using a [[spark gap transmitter]] with a specially designed high frequency 10 kHz [[induction coil|interrupter]], over a distance of 1 mile (1.6 km) at Cobb Island, Maryland, USA. His first transmitted words were, \"Hello. One, two, three, four. Is it snowing where you are, Mr. Thiessen?\". The words were barely intelligible above the background buzz of the spark.\n\nFessenden was a significant figure in the development of AM radio. He was one of the first researchers to realize, from experiments like the above, that the existing technology for producing radio waves, the spark transmitter, was not usable for amplitude modulation, and that a new kind of transmitter, one that produced [[sinusoidal]] \'\'[[continuous wave]]s\'\', was needed. This was a radical idea at the time, because experts believed the impulsive spark was necessary to produce radio frequency waves, and Fessenden was ridiculed. He invented and helped develop one of the first continuous wave transmitters - the [[Alexanderson alternator]], with which he made what is considered the first AM public entertainment broadcast on Christmas Eve, 1906. He also discovered the principle on which AM modulation is based, [[heterodyne|heterodyning]], and invented one of the first [[detector (radio)|detector]]s able to [[rectifier|rectify]] and receive AM, the electrolytic detector or \"liquid baretter\", in 1902. Other radio detectors invented for wireless telegraphy, such as the [[Fleming valve]] (1904) and the [[crystal detector]] (1906) also proved able to rectify AM signals, so the technological hurdle was generating AM waves; receiving them was not a problem.\n\n===Early technologies===\nEarly experiments in AM radio transmission, conducted by Fessenden, Valdamar Poulsen, Ernst Ruhmer, [[Quirino Majorana]], Charles Harrold, and [[Lee De Forest]], were hampered by the lack of a technology for [[amplifier|amplification]]. The first practical continuous wave AM [[transmitter]]s were based on either the huge, expensive [[Alexanderson alternator]], developed 1906-1910, or versions of the [[Poulsen arc]] transmitter (arc converter), invented in 1903. The modifications necessary to transmit AM were clumsy and resulted in very low quality audio. Modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon [[microphone]] inserted directly in the antenna or ground wire; its varying resistance varied the current to the antenna. The limited power handling ability of the microphone severely limited the power of the first radiotelephones; many of the microphones were water-cooled.\n\n===Vacuum tubes===\nThe discovery in 1912 of the amplifying ability of the [[Audion]] [[vacuum tube]], invented in 1906 by [[Lee De Forest]], solved these problems. The vacuum tube [[electronic oscillator|feedback oscillator]], invented in 1912 by [[Edwin Armstrong]] and [[Alexander Meissner]], was a cheap source of [[continuous wave]]s and could be easily [[modulation|modulated]] to make an AM transmitter. Modulation did not have to be done at the output but could be applied to the signal before the final amplifier tube, so the microphone or other audio source didn\'t have to handle high power. Wartime research greatly advanced the art of AM modulation, and after the war the availability of cheap tubes sparked a great increase in the number of radio stations experimenting with AM transmission of news or music. The vacuum tube was responsible for the rise of [[AM broadcasting|AM radio broadcasting]] around 1920, the first electronic [[mass communication|mass entertainment]] medium. Amplitude modulation was virtually the only type used for [[radio broadcasting]] until [[FM broadcasting]] began after World War 2.\n\nAt the same time as AM radio began, [[telephone company|telephone companies]] such as [[AT&T]] were developing the other large application for AM: sending multiple telephone calls through a single wire by modulating them on separate [[carrier signal|carrier]] frequencies, called \'\'[[frequency division multiplexing]]\'\'.[\n{{cite book\n | title = Communication Engineering\n | author = A.P.Godse and U.A.Bakshi\n | publisher = Technical Publications\n | year = 2009\n | isbn = 978-81-8431-089-4\n | page = 36\n | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=coQ6ac-fh6QC&pg=PA36\n }}]\n\n===Low-level generation===\nIn modern radio systems, modulated signals are generated via [[digital signal processing]] (DSP). With DSP many types of AM are possible with software control (including DSB with carrier, SSB suppressed-carrier and independent sideband, or ISB). Calculated digital samples are converted to voltages with a [[digital to analog converter]], typically at a frequency less than the desired RF-output frequency. The analog signal must then be shifted in frequency and [[linear amplifier|linearly amplified]] to the desired frequency and power level (linear amplification must be used to prevent modulation distortion).[\n{{cite book\n|publisher= American Radio Relay League\n|title= The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications\n|editor1-last= Silver |editor1-first= Ward\n|edition= Eighty-eighth\n|year= 2011\n|chapter= Ch. 15 DSP and Software Radio Design\n|isbn= 978-0-87259-096-0}}]\nThis low-level method for AM is used in many Amateur Radio transceivers.[{{cite book\n|publisher= American Radio Relay League\n|title= The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications\n|editor1-last= Silver |editor1-first= Ward\n|edition= Eighty-eighth\n|year= 2011\n|chapter= Ch. 14 Transceivers\n|isbn= 978-0-87259-096-0}}]\n\nAM may also be generated at a low level, using analog methods described in the next section.\n\n===High-level generation===\nHigh-power AM [[transmitter]]s (such as those used for [[AM broadcasting]]) are based on high-efficiency [[Class-D amplifier|class-D]] and class-E [[Electronic amplifier|power amplifier]] stages, modulated by varying the supply voltage.[\n{{cite journal\n|author= Frederick H. Raab\n|title= RF and Microwave Power Amplifier and Transmitter Technologies - Part 2\n|journal= High Frequency Design\n|date=May 2003\n|pages=22ff\n|url= http://www.scribd.com/doc/8616046/RF-Power-Amplifier-and-Transmitter-Technologies-Part2\n|display-authors=etal}}]\n\nOlder designs (for broadcast and amateur radio) also generate AM by controlling the gain of the transmitter?s final amplifier (generally class-C, for efficiency). The following types are for vacuum tube transmitters (but similar options are available with transistors):[\n{{cite book\n|author= Laurence Gray and Richard Graham\n|title= Radio Transmitters\n|publisher= McGraw-Hill\n|year= 1961\n|pages=141ff\n}}]\n\n* \'\'\'Plate modulation:\'\'\' In plate modulation, the plate voltage of the RF amplifier is modulated with the audio signal. The audio power requirement is 50 percent of the RF-carrier power.\n* \'\'\'Heising (constant-current) modulation:\'\'\' RF amplifier plate voltage is fed through a [[Choke (electronics)|?choke?]] (high-value inductor). The AM modulation tube plate is fed through the same inductor, so the modulator tube diverts current from the RF amplifier. The choke acts as a constant current source in the audio range. This system has a low power efficiency.\n* \'\'\'Control grid modulation:\'\'\' The operating bias and gain of the final RF amplifier can be controlled by varying the voltage of the control grid. This method requires little audio power, but care must be taken to reduce distortion.\n* \'\'\'Clamp tube (screen grid) modulation:\'\'\' The screen-grid bias may be controlled through a ?clamp tube?, which reduces voltage according to the modulation signal. It is difficult to approach 100-percent modulation while maintaining low distortion with this system.\n* \'\'\'[[Doherty amplifier|Doherty modulation:]]\'\'\' One tube provides the power under carrier conditions and another operates only for positive modulation peaks. Overall efficiency is good, and distortion is low.\n* \'\'\'[[Ampliphase|Outphasing modulation:]]\'\'\' Two tubes are operated in parallel, but partially out of phase with each other. As they are differentially phase modulated their combined amplitude is greater or smaller. Efficiency is good and distortion low when properly adjusted.\n* \'\'\'[[Pulse-width modulation|Pulse width modulation (PWM) or Pulse duration modulation (PDM):]]\'\'\' A highly efficient high voltage power supply is applied to the tube plate. The output voltage of this supply is varied at an audio rate to follow the program. This system was pioneered by [[Hilmer Swanson]] and has a number of variations, all of which achieve high efficiency and sound quality.\n\n=={{anchor|AM demodulation methods}}Demodulation methods==\nThe simplest form of AM demodulator consists of a diode which is configured to act as [[envelope detector]]. Another type of demodulator, the [[product detector]], can provide better-quality demodulation with additional circuit complexity.\n\n==See also==\n* [[AM broadcasting|AM radio]]\n* [[AM stereo]]\n* [[Mediumwave]] band used for AM broadcast radio\n* [[Longwave]] band used for AM broadcast radio\n* [[Frequency modulation]]\n* [[Shortwave radio]] almost universally uses AM, narrow FM occurring above 25 MHz.\n* [[Modulation]], for a list of other modulation techniques\n* [[Amplitude modulation signalling system]] (AMSS), a digital system for adding low bitrate information to an AM signal.\n* [[Sideband]], for some explanation of what this is.\n* [[Types of radio emissions]], for the emission types designated by the [[ITU]]\n* [[Airband]]\n* [[Citizen\'s Band Radio]]\n* [[Quadrature amplitude modulation]]\n*[[Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission|DSB-SC]]\n\n==References==\n;Notes\n{{Reflist}}\n;Sources\n* Newkirk, David and Karlquist, Rick (2004). Mixers, modulators and demodulators. In D. G. Reed (ed.), \'\'The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications\'\' (81st ed.), pp. 15.1–15.36. Newington: ARRL. ISBN 0-87259-196-4.\n\n==External links==\n* \'\'[http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/AmplitudeModulation/ Amplitude Modulation]\'\' by Jakub Serych, [[Wolfram Demonstrations Project]].\n* [http://robotics.eecs.berkeley.edu/~sastry/ee20/modulation/node3.html Amplitude Modulation], by S Sastry.\n* [https://fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/es310/AM.htm Amplitude Modulation], an introduction by [[Federation of American Scientists]].\n* [http://afrotechmods.com/tutorials/2011/11/28/amplitude-modulation-tutorial-am-radio-transmitter-circuit/ Amplitude Modulation tutorial video with example transmitter circuit.]\n\n{{Telecommunications}}\n{{Audio broadcasting}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Amplitude Modulation}}\n[[Category:Radio modulation modes]]'
'Augustin-Jean_Fresnel' '{{Redirect|Fresnel}}\n{{refimprove|date=January 2013}}\n{{Infobox scientist\n| name = Augustin-Jean Fresnel\n| image = Augustin Fresnel.jpg\n| caption = Augustin-Jean Fresnel\n| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1788|5|10}} \n| birth_place = [[Broglie, Eure|Broglie]] ([[Eure]]), [[Kingdom of France]]\n| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1827|7|14|1788|5|10}} \n| death_place = [[Ville-d\'Avray]] ([[Hauts-de-Seine]]), [[Bourbon Restoration|Kingdom of France]]\n| residence = [[France]]\n| nationality = [[France|French]] \n| ethnicity = \n| field = [[physics]], [[engineering]]\n| work_institutions = \n| alma_mater = \n| doctoral_advisor = \n| doctoral_students = \n| known_for = [[wave|wave optics]]\n| author_abbrev_bot = \n| author_abbrev_zoo = \n| influences = \n| influenced = \n| prizes = [[Rumford Medal]] {{small|(1824)}}\n| footnotes = \n| signature = \n}}\n \n\'\'\'Augustin-Jean Fresnel\'\'\' ({{IPAc-en|f|r|e?|?|n|?|l}} {{respell|fray|NEL|\'}}; {{IPA-fr|?.?y.st?? ??? f??.n?l|lang}}; 1788?1827), was a [[France|French]] [[engineer]] and [[physicist]] who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of [[wave|wave optics]]. Fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally.\n\nHe is perhaps best known as the [[inventor]] of the [[Fresnel lens]], first adopted in [[lighthouse]]s while he was a French commissioner of lighthouses, and found in many applications today. His [[Fresnel equations]] on waves and [[reflectivity]] also form the basis for many applications in [[computer graphics]] today - for instance, the rendering of [[water]].\n\n==Personal life and education==\nFresnel was the \nson of an architect, born at [[Broglie, Eure|Broglie]] ([[Eure]]). His early progress in learning was slow, and he still could not read when he was eight years old. At thirteen he entered the ?cole Centrale in [[Caen]], and at sixteen and a half the [[?cole Polytechnique]], where he acquitted himself with distinction. From there he went to the [[?cole Nationale des Ponts et Chauss?es|?cole des Ponts et Chauss?es]].\n\nHe received only scant public recognition during his lifetime for his labours in the cause of optical science. Some of his papers were not printed by the [[Acad?mie des Sciences]] until many years after his death. But as he wrote to Young in 1824: in himself \"that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory\" had been blunted. \"All the compliments,\" he says, \"that I have received from [[Fran?ois Arago|Arago]], [[Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace|Laplace]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Biot|Biot]] never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation of a calculation by experiment\".{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}\n\nFresnel has been described as a man with interest in religious questions and deep faith in God.[Graves, Dan. 1996. \'\'Scientists of Faith: Forty-eight Biographies of Historic Scientists and Their Christian Faith\'\'. Kregel Publications. pp. 102-103][Varadaraja Raman. 2005. \'\'Variety in Religion and Science: Daily Reflections\'\'. iUniverse. p. 390][Kneller, Karl Alois. 1911. \'\'[https://archive.org/stream/christianitylead00knelrich#page/146/mode/2up Christianity and the leaders of modern science; a contribution to the history of culture in the nineteenth century\"]\'\'. \"The Theory of Light\". pp. 147-148] As a form of consolation, he took religion very seriously especially during his illness.[[http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Augustin_Jean_Fresnel.aspx Fresnel, Augustin Jean]\'\'. Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography | 2008 |][Charles George Herbermann. 1913. \'\'The Catholic Encyclopedia: An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church, Volume 6\'\'. Universal Knowledge Foundation. p. 280]\n\nHe spent much of his life in Paris, and died of [[tuberculosis]] at [[Ville-d\'Avray]], near Paris.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} His is one of the [[List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower|72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower]]. The writer [[Prosper M?rim?e]] (1803-1870) was his first cousin.\n\n==Career==\n[[File:David d\'Angers - Fresnel.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Bust of Augustin Fresnel by [[David d\'Angers]].]]\n[[File:Fresnel Lens at Point Arena Lighthouse Museum.jpg|thumb|right|First-order lighthouse [[Fresnel lens]], on display at the Point Arena Lighthouse Museum, [[Point Arena Lighthouse]], [[Mendocino County, California]] ]]\nHe served as an engineer successively in the departments of [[Vend?e]], [[Dr?me]] and [[Ille-et-Vilaine]]; but having supported the [[Bourbon house|Bourbons]] in 1814 he lost his appointment on [[Napoleon]]\'s return to power.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} He appears to have begun his research in optics around 1814, when he prepared a paper on the [[aberration of light]], although it was never published. In 1815, on the second restoration of the monarchy, he obtained a post as engineer in [[Paris]].\n\nIn 1818 he wrote a memoir on [[diffraction]], for which he received the prize of the [[French Academy of Sciences|Acad?mie des Sciences]] at Paris the following year. He was the first to construct a special type of lens, now called a [[Fresnel lens]], as a substitute for mirrors in lighthouses. In 1819, he was nominated to be a commissioner of lighthouses. In 1823 he was unanimously elected a member of the academy. In 1825 he became a member of the [[Royal Society of London]]. In 1827, the time of his last illness, the Royal Society of London awarded him the [[Rumford Medal]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}\n\nIn 1818 he published his Memoir on the Diffraction of Light, submitted to the Academe of science in 1818.[{{Cite book|last=Fresnel|first=Augustin|year=1819|chapter=Memoir on the Diffraction of Light|title=The Wave Theory of Light ? Memoirs by Huygens, Young and Fresnel|publisher=American Book Company|pages=79?145|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_0hWAAAAMAAJ&dq=memoir%20of%20fresnel&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false}}] His discoveries and mathematical deductions, building on experimental work by [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]], extended the [[Huygens\' principle|wave theory]] of [[light]] to a large class of [[optical phenomenon|optical phenomena]], especially, to the [[Birefringence|double-refraction]] property of [[Iceland Spar]], or [[calcite]].[[[E. T. Whittaker|Whittaker, E. T.]], \'\'A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity\'\'. Dublin University Press, 1910.]\n\nIn 1817, Young had proposed a small transverse component to light, while yet retaining a far larger longitudinal component. Fresnel, by the year 1821, was able to show by mathematical methods that [[polarization (waves)|polarization]] could be explained only if light was \'\'entirely\'\' transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever.[{{Cite book|last=Fresnel|first=Augustin|year=1819|chapter=On the Action of Rays of Polarized Light upon Each Other|title=The Wave Theory of Light ? Memoirs by Huygens, Young and Fresnel|publisher=American Book Company|pages=145?56|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_0hWAAAAMAAJ&dq=memoir%20of%20fresnel&pg=PA145#v=onepage&q&f=false}}] He proposed the [[aether drag hypothesis]] to explain a lack of variation in astronomical observations. His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180?, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi|F. M. Grimaldi]] on [[Interference (wave propagation)|interference]]. This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomenon of interference in accordance with the wave theory.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}}\n\n==Polarized light research==\n[[Image:fresnel rhomb.svg|thumb | left | 200px | A diagram of a Fresnel rhomb (blue). Incoming light, if linearly polarized at 45? with respect to the [[plane of incidence]] (along the page) has the relative phase of its \'\'s\'\' and \'\'p\'\' [[polarization (waves)|polarization]] components altered at two reflections, outputting a [[circularly polarized]] beam.]]\nWith [[Fran?ois Arago]] he studied the laws of the interference of polarized rays. He obtained circularly polarized light by means of a rhombus of glass, known as a [[Fresnel rhomb]], having obtuse angles of 126? and acute angles of 54?. The [[Fresnel?Arago laws]] are three laws which summarise some of the more important properties of [[Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] between light of different states of [[polarization (waves)|polarization]]. The laws are as follows:[[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Fresnel-AragoLaws.html World of Physics]]\n* Two [[orthogonal]], [[Coherence (physics)|coherent]] linearly [[Polarization (waves)|polarized]] waves cannot interfere.\n* Two parallel coherent linearly polarized waves will interfere in the same way as [[Sunlight|natural light]].\n* The two constituent orthogonal linearly polarized states of natural light cannot interfere to form a readily observable interference pattern, even if rotated into alignment (because they are incoherent).\n\nThe [[Fresnel equations]] describe the behaviour of [[light]] when moving between [[medium (optics)|media]] of differing [[refractive index|refractive indices]]. When light moves from a medium of a given [[refractive index]] \'\'n\'\'1 into a second medium with refractive index \'\'n\'\'2, both [[reflection (physics)|reflection]] and [[refraction]] of the light may occur.\n\nThe [[Fresnel diffraction]] equation is an approximation of [[Kirchhoff\'s diffraction formula|Kirchhoff-Fresnel diffraction]] that can be applied to the propagation of waves in the [[near and far field|near field]].[[[Max Born|M. Born]] & E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 1999, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge] It is used to calculate the [[diffraction pattern]] created by waves passing through an aperture or around an object, when viewed from relatively close to the object. In contrast the diffraction pattern in the [[near and far field|far field]] region is given by the [[Fraunhofer diffraction]] equation.\n\n==References==\n{{reflist}}\n\n==External links==\n* {{Wikiquote-inline}}\n* Fresnel article on double refraction, 1822, online and analyzed on \'\'[https://www.bibnum.education.fr/physique/optique/la-double-refraction-de-fresnel-et-les-molecules-pharmaceutiques-chirales BibNum]\'\' [click \'? t?l?charger\' for English analysis]\n{{Authority control}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Fresnel, Augustin-Jean}}\n[[Category:French civil engineers]]\n[[Category:?cole Polytechnique alumni]]\n[[Category:?cole des Ponts ParisTech alumni]]\n[[Category:Corps des ponts]]\n[[Category:1788 births]]\n[[Category:1827 deaths]]\n[[Category:People from Eure]]\n[[Category:Burials at P?re Lachaise Cemetery]]\n[[Category:Deaths from tuberculosis]]\n[[Category:French physicists]]\n[[Category:Optical physicists]]\n[[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]]\n[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in France]]\n[[Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society]]'
'Abbot' '{{About|the term\'s use in Christianity|the term\'s use in Buddhism|Abbot (Buddhism)|other uses}}\n{{Catholic Church Hierarchy}}\n[[File:Santo Domingo de Silos entronizado como obispo, por Bartolom? Bermejo.jpg|thumb|St. [[Dominic of Silos]] enthroned as abbot (Hispano-Flemish Gothic 15th century)]]\n\n\'\'\'Abbot\'\'\', meaning father, is an [[ecclesiastic]]al [[title]] given to the head of a [[monastery]] in various traditions, including [[Christianity]]. The [[office]] may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not actually the head of a monastery. The female equivalent is [[abbess]].\n\n==Origins==\nThe title had its origin in the [[monastery|monasteries]] of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], spread through the eastern [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]], and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. The word is derived from the [[Aramaic]] \'\'av\'\' meaning \"father\" or \'\'abba\'\', meaning \"my father\". In the [[Septuagint]], it was written as \"abbas\".[{{cite encyclopedia|last= |first= |authorlink= |editor-first= |editor-last= |editor-link= |encyclopedia=Encyclop?dia Britannica|title=Abbey Austin|edition=15th |year=2010| publisher=Encyclop?dia Britannica, Inc.|volume=I: A?Ak ? Bayes|location= Chicago, IL|isbn=978-1-59339-837-8|pages=12}}] At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by [[canon law]] to certain priestly superiors. At times it was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the \'\'Abbas palatinus\'\' (\"of the palace\"\') and \'\'Abbas castrensis\'\' (\"of the camp\") were chaplains to the Merovingian and Carolingian sovereigns? court and army respectively. The title abbot came into fairly general use in western [[Christian monasticism|monastic]] [[order (religious)|orders]] whose members include priests.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\n==Monastic history==\n[[File:StPakhom.jpg|thumb|[[Copt]]ic [[icon]] of St. [[Pachomius]], the founder of [[cenobitic]] [[monasticism]].]]\n[[File:Bendeikt von Nursia in Muensterschwazach.jpg|thumb|Carving of St. [[Benedict of Nursia]], holding an abbot\'s [[crozier]] and his [[Rule of St. Benedict|Rule for Monasteries]] (M?nsterschwarzach, Germany).]]\n[[File:Abbatia CIST Sbernadiensis 27a.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Abbot at Bornem Abbey]]\nAn abbot (from [[Old English]] \'\'abbod\'\', \'\'abbad\'\', from [[Latin]] \'\'abbas\'\' (?father?), from [[Ancient Greek]] \'\'?????\'\' (abbas), from Aramaic \'\'???\'\'/\'\'???\'\' (?abb?, ?father?); confer German \'\'Abt\'\'; French \'\'abb?\'\') is the head and chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the East \'\'[[hegumen]]\'\' or \'\'[[archimandrite]]\'\'.{{sfn|Venables|1911}} The English version for a female monastic head is [[abbess]]. In [[Taoism]], the highest ranking abbot, who is only assigned to the most prominent temples (or guan) is known as a \'\'Fangzhang\'\'. All Tao guan have low ranking abbots, known as \'\'Zhu Chi\'\'.[{{cite news|last1=Nilsson|first1=Erik|last2=Rui|first2=Guo|title=First woman leader of Taoist clerical orthodoxy|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2009-12/14/content_9170376.htm|accessdate=6 December 2015|publisher=China Daily|location=Beijing, China}}]\n\n===Early history===\nIn [[Egypt]], the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. Saint [[John Cassian]] speaks of an abbot of the [[Thebaid]] who had 500 monks under him. By the [[Rule of St Benedict]], which, until the [[Cluniac reforms]], was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluniac]] Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognized.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\nMonks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. For the reception of the [[sacraments]], and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the [[ordination]] of some monks. This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, [[ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher [[spirituality|spiritual]] life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become [[deacon]]s, if not priests. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils. Thus at the [[first Council of Constantinople]], AD 448, 23 [[archimandrite]]s or abbots sign, with 30 [[bishop]]s.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\nThe [[second Council of Nicaea]], AD 787, recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders{{sfn|Venables|1911}} below the [[deacon|diaconate]], a power usually reserved to bishops.\n\nAbbots were originally subject to [[bishop|episcopal]] jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century. The [[Code of Justinian]] (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]]. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an \'\'imperium in imperio,\'\' and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his [[diocese]].{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\n===Later Middle Ages===\n{{main|Mitre#Christian clergy|l1=Mitres}}\nIn the 12th century, the abbots of [[Fulda monastery|Fulda]] claimed precedence of the [[archdiocese of Cologne|archbishop of Cologne]]. Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of [[mitre]], ring, gloves and sandals.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\nIt has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, \'\'Liturgische Gewandung\'\', p. 453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which [[Pope Alexander II|Alexander II]] in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The mitred abbots in England were those of [[Abingdon Abbey|Abingdon]], [[St Albans Abbey|St Alban\'s]], [[Bardney Abbey|Bardney]], [[Battle Abbey|Battle]], [[Bury St. Edmunds Abbey|Bury St Edmunds]], [[St Augustine\'s Abbey|St Augustine\'s Canterbury]], [[Colchester Abbey|Colchester]], [[Crowland Abbey|Croyland]], [[Evesham Abbey|Evesham]], [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]], [[Gloucester Abbey|Gloucester]], [[St Benet\'s Abbey|St Benet\'s Hulme]], [[Hyde Abbey|Hyde]], [[Malmesbury Abbey|Malmesbury]], [[Peterborough Abbey|Peterborough]], [[Ramsey Abbey|Ramsey]], [[Reading Abbey|Reading]], [[Selby Abbey|Selby]], [[Shrewsbury Abbey|Shrewsbury]], [[Tavistock Abbey|Tavistock]], [[Thorney Abbey|Thorney]], [[Westminster Abbey|Westminster]], [[Winchcombe Abbey|Winchcombe]], and [[St Mary\'s Abbey, York|St Mary\'s York]].[[http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/361/361-03.htm#ecclmap Government in Church and State] from \'\'University of Wisconsin-Madison\'\' retrieved 15 June 2013] Of these the precedence was originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD 1154 [[Pope Adrian IV|Adrian IV]] (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban\'s, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban\'s ranked the abbot of Westminster and then Ramsey.[{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Ramsey Abbey|volume=12}}] Elsewhere, the mitred abbots that sat in the [[Estates of Scotland]] were of [[Arbroath Abbey|Arbroath]], [[Cambuskenneth Abbey|Cambuskenneth]], [[Coupar Angus Abbey|Coupar Angus]], [[Dunfermline Abbey|Dunfermline]], [[Holyrood Abbey|Holyrood]], [[Iona Abbey|Iona]], [[Kelso Abbey|Kelso]], [[Kilwinning Abbey|Kilwinning]], [[Kinloss Abbey|Kinloss]], [[Lindores Abbey|Lindores]], [[Paisley Abbey|Paisley]], [[Melrose Abbey|Melrose]], [[Scone Abbey|Scone]], [[St Andrews Cathedral Priory|St Andrews Priory]] and [[Sweetheart Abbey|Sweetheart]].[{{citation |last=Cowan |first= Ian B. |author-link= |last2= Easson |first2= David E. |author2-link= |title=Medieval Religious Houses: Scotland With an Appendix on the Houses in the Isle of Man |edition= 2nd |year=1976 |publisher=Longman |location= London and New York |isbn=0-582-12069-1}} pp. 67-97] To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their [[crosier|pastoral staff]] (the crosier) should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\nThe adoption of certain episcopal insignia ([[pontificalia]]) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the [[First Council of the Lateran|Lateran council]], AD 1123. In the East abbots, if in priests\' orders and with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the [[Second Council of Nicaea|second Nicene council]], AD 787, to confer the [[tonsure]] and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD 1489 permitted by [[Pope Innocent IV|Innocent IV]] to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\nThe power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the [[canon law]]. One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection. It was sacred duty to execute the abbot\'s orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavoring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\n====Appointments====\nWhen a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the [[abbey|convent]], but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In [[abbey]]s exempt from the (arch)bishop\'s diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and [[benediction]] had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot\'s journey to [[Rome]]. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 30 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house for at least 10 years,[ unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience.{{sfn|Venables|1911}} In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno. Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontr? and other houses, chiefs of their order. The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop, and also in England it was for a term of 8?12 years.][\n\nThe ceremony of the formal admission of a [[Benedictine]] abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the [[Consuetudinary (book)|consuetudinary]] of Abingdon. The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession. After proceeding up the [[nave]], he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his [[commissary]], and placed in his stall. The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his [[staff of office]]. He then put on his shoes in the [[vestry]], and a [[chapter (religion)|chapter]] was held, and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\n==General information==\nBefore the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house. When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed. His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king. No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission, reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society. The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table. In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks. In the West the [[Rule of St Benedict]] appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers. Because this permission opened the door to luxurious living, [[Synods of Aachen (816?819)]], decreed that the abbot should dine in the [[refectory]], and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots. When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his [[chaplain]]s waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\n[[File:Template-Abbot - Provost.svg|right|thumb|Arms of a Roman Catholic abbot are distinguished by a gold [[crozier]] with a veil attached and a black [[galero]] with twelve tassels (the galero of a [[territorial abbot]] would be green)]]\nThe ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire. Some even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by [[clerical celibacy|celibacy]]. Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of [[Leicester]], c. 1360, who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting. In magnificence of equipage and [[retinue]] the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm. They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants. The bells of the churches were rung as they passed. They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits.{{sfn|Venables|1911}} This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially. For instance, we read of Whiting, the last abbot of [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]], judicially murdered by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons. The [[abbots of Cluny]] and [[Trinity Abbey, Vend?me|Vend?me]] were, by virtue of their office, [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s of the Roman church.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\nIn the process of time, the title abbot was extended to [[clergy#Catholic clergy|clerics]] who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and under the [[Charlemagne|Carolingians]] to the chief chaplain of the king, \'\'{{lang|la|Abbas Curiae}}\'\', or military chaplain of the emperor, \'\'{{lang|la|Abbas Castrensis.}}\'\' It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials. Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at [[Genoa]] was called \'\'{{lang|la|Abbas Populi}}\'\'.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\n[[Lay abbot]]s (M. Lat. \'\'{{lang|la|defensores}}\'\', \'\'{{lang|la|abbacomites}}\'\', \'\'{{lang|la|abbates laici}}\'\', \'\'{{lang|la|abbates milites}}\'\', \'\'{{lang|la|abbates saeculares}}\'\' or \'\'{{lang|la|irreligiosi}}\'\', \'\'{{lang|la|abbatiarii}}\'\', or sometimes simply \'\'{{lang|la|abbates}}\'\') were the outcome of the growth of the [[Feudalism|feudal]] system from the 8th century onwards. The practice of [[commendation]], by which?to meet a contemporary emergency?the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection,\nearly suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held \'\'in [[commendam]].\'\'{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\nDuring the Carolingian epoch, the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable [[fiefdom|fiefs]] or [[benefice]]s, and by the 10th century, before the great [[Cluniac]] reform, the system was firmly established. Even the [[Saint Denis Basilica|abbey of St Denis]] was held in commendam by [[Hugh Capet]]. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever. In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the [[council of Cloveshoe]]. These lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions. The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other. The [[enfeoffment]] of abbeys differed in form and degree. Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as [[dean (religion)|dean]] (decanus), but also as abbot (\'\'abbas legitimas\'\', \'\'monasticus\'\', \'\'regularis\'\').{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\nWhen the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal families, as late as the 13th century and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of dean. The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West. John, [[patriarch of Antioch]], at the beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, \'\'bencficiarii,\'\' for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors.{{sfn|Venables|1911}}\n\n[[Giraldus Cambrensis]] reported (\'\'Itinerary\'\', ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales:\n:\"for a bad custom has prevailed amongst the clergy, of appointing the most powerful people of a parish stewards, or, rather, patrons, of their churches; who, in process of time, from a desire of gain, have usurped the whole right, appropriating to their own use the possession of all the lands, leaving only to the clergy the altars, with their tenths and oblations, and assigning even these to their sons and relations in the church. Such defenders, or rather destroyers, of the church, have caused themselves to be called abbots, and presumed to attribute to themselves a title, as well as estates, to which they have no just claim.\"\n\nIn conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a [[prior]].\n\n==Modern practices==\nIn the Roman Catholic Church, abbots continue to be elected by the monks of an abbey to lead them as their religious superior in those orders and monasteries that make use of the term (some orders of monks, as the [[Carthusians]] for instance, have no abbots, only [[prior]]s). A monastery must have been granted the status of an abbey by the Pope,{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} and such monasteries are normally raised to this level after showing a degree of stability?a certain number of monks in vows, a certain number of years of establishment, a certain firmness to the foundation in economic, vocational and legal aspects. Prior to this, the monastery would be a mere priory, headed by a prior who acts as superior but without the same degree of legal authority that an abbot has.\n\n[[File:Abbot Francis Michael and Prior Anthony Delisi.jpg|thumb|Abbot Francis Michael and Prior Anthony Delisi (on the left) of [[Monastery of the Holy Spirit]], a [[Trappist]] monastery in Conyers, Georgia, USA.]]\nThe abbot is chosen by the monks from among the fully professed monks. Once chosen, he must request blessing: the blessing of an abbot is celebrated by the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is or, with his permission, another abbot or bishop. The ceremony of such a blessing is similar in some aspects to the consecration of a bishop, with the new abbot being presented with the [[mitre]], the ring, and the [[crosier]] as symbols of office and receiving the laying on of hands and blessing from the celebrant. Though the ceremony installs the new abbot into a position of legal authority, it does not confer further sacramental authority- it is not a further degree of Holy Orders (although some abbots have been ordained to the episcopacy).\n\nOnce he has received this blessing, the abbot not only becomes father of his monks in a spiritual sense, but their major superior under canon law, and has the additional authority to confer the ministries of acolyte and lector (formerly, he could confer the minor orders, which are not sacraments, that these ministries have replaced). The abbey is a species of \"exempt religious\" in that it is, for the most part, answerable to the Pope, or to the abbot primate, rather than to the local bishop.\n\nThe abbot wears the same habit as his fellow monks, though by tradition he adds to it a pectoral cross.\n\n[[Territorial abbot]]s follow all of the above, but in addition must receive a mandate of authority from the Pope over the territory around the monastery for which they are responsible.\n\n==Abbatial hierarchy==\nIn some monastic families, there is a hierarchy of precedence or authority among abbots. In some cases, this is the result of an abbey being considered the \"mother\" of several \"daughter\" abbeys founded originally as dependent priories of the \"mother.\" In other cases, abbeys have affiliated in networks known as \"congregations.\" Some monastic families recognize one abbey as the motherhouse of the entire order.\n\n* The abbot of [[Sant\'Anselmo]] di Aventino, in Rome, is styled the \"abbot primate,\" and is acknowledged the senior abbot for the Order of St. Benedict (O.S.B.)\n* An abbot president is the head of a congregation (federation) of abbeys within the Order of St. Benedict (for instance, the English Congregation, The American Cassinese Congregation, etc.), or of the Cistercians (O. Cist.)\n* An archabbot is the head of some monasteries which are the motherhouses of other monasteries (for instance, [[Saint Vincent Archabbey]], [[Latrobe, Pennsylvania]])\n\n==Modern abbots not as superior==\nThe title [[abb?]] (French; Ital. \'\'abate\'\'), as commonly used in the Catholic Church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English \"Father\" (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the [[tonsure]]. This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the [[concordat]] between [[Pope Leo X]] and [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] (1516), to appoint \'\'abb?s commendataires\'\' to most of the abbeys in France. The expectation of obtaining these [[sinecure]]s drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abb?s so formed?\'\'abb?s de cour\'\' they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) \'\'abb?s de sainte esp?rance\'\', (abb?s of holy hope; or the pun, of St. Hope)?came to hold a recognized position. The connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the title of abb?, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising [[celibacy]] and wearing a distinctive dress?a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abb?. The class did not survive the [[French Revolution|Revolution]]; but the [[courtesy title]] of abb?, having long lost all connection in people\'s minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman.\n\n==Eastern Christian==\n{{further|Hegumen|Archimandrite}}\n\nIn the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], the abbot is referred to as the \'\'[[hegumen]]\'\'. The Superior of a convent of nuns is called the \'\'H?gum?n?\'\'. The title of \'\'[[archimandrite]]\'\' (literally the head of the enclosure) used to mean something similar.\n\nIn the East, the principle set forth in the \'\'[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]\'\' still applies, whereby most abbots are immediately subject to the local bishop. Those monasteries which enjoy the status of being \'\'stauropegiac\'\' will be subject only to a [[Primate (bishop)|primate]] or his [[Synod]] of Bishops and not the local bishop.\n\n==Honorary and other uses of the title==\nThough the title \"abbot\" is not given in the Western Church to any but actual abbots of monasteries today, the title archimandrite is given to \"monastics\" (i.e., celibate) priests in the East, even when not attached to a monastery, as an honor for service, similar to the title of [[monsignor]] in the Western/Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church. In the [[Orthodox Church]], only actual monastics are permitted to be elevated to the rank of Archimandrite. Married priests are elevated to the parallel rank of [[Archpriest]] or [[Protopresbyter]]. Normally there are no celibate priests who are not monastics in the Orthodox Church, with the exception of married priests who have been [[widow]]ed. Since the time of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]] the ranks of Abbot and Archimandrite have been given as honorary titles in the Russian Church, and may be given to any monastic, even if he does not in fact serve as the superior of a monastery. In Greek practice the title or function of Abbot corresponds to a person who actually serves as the head of a monastery, although the title of the Archimandrite may be given to any celibate priest who could serve as the head of a monastery.\n\nIn the [[Evangelical Church in Germany|German Evangelical Church]], the German title of \'\'Abt\'\' (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French \'\'abb?\'\', as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations.\nOf these the most noteworthy is [[Loccum Abbey]] in [[Hanover]], founded as a [[Cistercian]] house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Loccum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence over all the clergy of Hanover, and was \'\'ex officio\'\' a member of the [[wiktionary:consistory|consistory]] of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the \"convent\" of \'\'[[Stiftsherr]]en\'\' (canons).\n\nIn the [[Church of England]], the [[Bishop of Norwich]], by royal decree given by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], also holds the honorary title of \"Abbot of St. Benet.\" This title hails back to England\'s separation from the See of Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of the monasteries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benet, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possessed no wealth, and lived like simple beggars, deposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day.\n\nAdditionally, at the [[enthronement]] of the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], there is a threefold enthronement, once in the throne the chancel as the [[diocesan bishop]] of [[Canterbury]], once in the [[Chair of St. Augustine]] as the [[Primate of All England]], and then once in the chapter-house as Titular Abbot of Canterbury.\n\nThere are several Benedictine Abbeys throughout the [[Anglican Communion]]. Most of them have mitred abbots.\n\n==Abbots in art and literature==\n[[File:Houghton Typ 515.38.456a - Totentanz, 14.jpg|thumb|\"The Abbot\", from the \'\'[[Dance of Death]]\'\', by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]]]]\n\"The Abbot\" is one of the archetypes traditionally illustrated in scenes of [[Dance Macabre]].\n\nThe lives of numerous abbots make up a significant contribution to Christian [[hagiography]], one of the most well-known being the \'\'Life of St. [[Benedict of Nursia]]\'\' by St. [[Gregory the Great]].\n\nDuring the years 1106?1107 A.D., a Russian Orthodox abbot named Daniel made a [[pilgrimage]] to the [[Holy Land]] and recorded his experiences. His diary was much-read throughout Russia, and at least seventy-five manuscript copies survive.\n\n[[Joseph of Volokolamsk|Saint Joseph]], Abbot of [[Volokolamsk]] (1439?1515), wrote a number of influential works against [[heresy]], and about monastic and liturgical discipline, and Christian [[philanthropy]].\n\nIn the Tales of Redwall series, the creatures of Redwall are led by an Abbot or Abbess. These \"abbots\" are appointed by the brothers and sisters of Redwall to serve as a superior and provide paternal care, much like real abbots.\n\n\"The Abbot\" was a nickname of [[RZA]] from the [[Wu-Tang Clan]].\n\n==See also==\n*[[Abb?]]\n*[[Abb? Pierre]]\n*[[Abbot (Buddhism)]]\n*[[Abthain]]\n*[[Commendatory abbot]]\n\n==Notes==\n{{reflist}}\n\n==References==\n*{{CathEncy|wstitle=Abbot}}\n*{{1911|first=Edmund|last=Venables|authorlink=Edmund Venables|wstitle=Abbot}}\n\n==External links==\n{{Collier\'s poster|Abbot}}\n{{Nuttall poster|Abbot}}\n* [http://www.valaam.ru/en/photos/lightval/551/ Russian Orthodox Abbot] of [[Valaam Monastery]]\n* [http://chass.colostate-pueblo.edu/history/seminar/daniel.htm \'\'The Pilgrimage of the Russian Abbot Daniel in the Holy Land\'\']\n\n{{RC consecrated life|state=collapsed}}\n\n[[Category:Abbots| ]]\n[[Category:Religious terminology]]\n[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]\n[[Category:Monasticism]]\n[[Category:Organisation of Catholic religious orders]]\n[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]\n[[Category:Roman Catholic Church offices]]\n[[Category:Christian religious occupations]]'
'Ardipithecus' '{{for|the album|Ardipithecus (album)}}\n{{taxobox\n | fossil_range = [[Late Miocene]] - [[Early Pliocene]], {{fossil range|5.6|4.4}}\n | image = Ardi.jpg\n | image_width = 250px\n | image_caption = \'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\' specimen, nicknamed [[Ardi]]\n | regnum = [[Animal]]ia\n | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]\n | classis = [[Mammal]]ia\n | ordo = [[Primate]]s\n | familia = [[Hominidae]]\n | subfamilia = [[Homininae]]\n | tribus = (debated][{{cite journal|quote=Is Ardipithecus a hominin??that question will likely dominate the paleoanthropological debate over this fossil taxon for years to come.|doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145724|title=Chimpanzees and the Behavior ofArdipithecus ramidus*|date=2012|last1=Stanford|first1=Craig B.|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|volume=41|pages=139}}] [[Hominini]])\n | genus = \'\'\'\'\'Ardipithecus\'\'\'\'\'\n | genus_authority = [[Tim D. White|White]] \'\'et al.\'\', 1995\n | subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]\n | subdivision = \n?\'\'Ardipithecus kadabba\'\'
\n?\'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\'\n}}\n\'\'\'\'\'Ardipithecus\'\'\'\'\' is a genus of an extinct [[hominine]] that lived during [[Late Miocene]] and [[Early Pliocene]] in [[Afar Depression]], [[Ethiopia]]. Originally described as one of the earliest ancestors of humans after they diverged from the main ape lineage, the relation of this [[genus]] to human ancestors and whether it is a [[hominin]] is now a matter of debate.[ Two fossil [[species]] are described in the literature: \'\'A. ramidus\'\', which lived about 4.4 million years ago][{{cite web | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html | title = Fossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest Human Ancestor | first = David | last = Perlman | publisher = National Geographic News | date = July 12, 2001 | accessdate = July 2009 | quote = Another co-author is Tim D. White, a paleoanthropologist at UC-Berkeley who in 1994 discovered a pre-human fossil, named Ardipithecus ramidus, that was then the oldest known, at 4.4 million years.\n}}] during the early [[Pliocene]], and \'\'A. kadabba\'\', dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago (late [[Miocene]]).[{{cite journal|last1=Stanford|first1=Craig B.|title=Chimpanzees and the Behavior of \'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\'|journal=Annual Review of Anthropology|date=2012|volume=41|issue=1|pages=139?149|doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145724}}]\n\n== \'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\' ==\n[[Image:Map of the fossil sites of the earliest hominids (35.8-3.3M BP).svg|thumb|350px|Map showing discovery locations.]]\n\'\'A. ramidus\'\' was named in September 1994. The first fossil found was dated to 4.4 million years ago on the basis of its stratigraphic position between two volcanic [[stratum|strata]]: the basal [[Tuff|Gaala Tuff Complex]] (G.A.T.C.) and the [[basalt|Daam Aatu Basaltic Tuff]] (D.A.B.T.).[{{Cite journal \n| last1 = White | first1 = T. D. \n| last2 = Suwa | first2 = G. \n| last3 = Asfaw | first3 = B. \n| title = \'\'Australopithecus ramidus\'\', a new species of early hominid from Aramis, Ethiopia \n| journal = Nature \n| volume = 371 \n| pages = 306?312 \n| year = 1994 \n| pmid = 8090200 \n| doi = 10.1038/371306a0\n| url = http://www2.ku.edu/~lba/courses/articles/White%20ramadis94.pdf\n|bibcode = 1994Natur.371..306W | issue=6495}}] The name \'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\' stems mostly from the [[Afar language]], in which \'\'Ardi\'\' means \"ground/floor\" (borrowed from the Semitic root in either Amharic or Arabic) and \'\'ramid\'\' means \"root\". The \'\'pithecus\'\' portion of the name is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for \"ape\".[{{cite web | title=NOVA, Aliens from Earth: Who\'s who in human evolution | last=Tyson | first=Peter |date=October 2009 | publisher=PBS | accessdate=2009-10-08 | url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hobbit/tree-nf.html}}]\n\nLike most hominids, but unlike all previously recognized hominins, it had a grasping [[hallux]] or big toe adapted for locomotion in the trees. It is not confirmed how much other features of its skeleton reflect adaptation to [[bipedalism]] on the ground as well. Like later hominins, \'\'Ardipithecus\'\' had reduced [[canine teeth]].\n\nIn 1992?1993 a research team headed by [[Tim D. White|Tim White]] discovered the first \'\'A. ramidus\'\' fossils?seventeen fragments including skull, mandible, teeth and arm bones?from the [[Afar Depression]] in the [[Middle Awash]] river valley of [[Ethiopia]]. More fragments were recovered in 1994, amounting to 45% of the total skeleton. This fossil was originally described as a species of \'\'[[Australopithecus]]\'\', but White and his colleagues later published a note in the same journal renaming the fossil under a new genus, \'\'Ardipithecus\'\'. Between 1999 and 2003, a multidisciplinary team led by [[Sileshi Semaw]] discovered bones and teeth of nine \'\'A. ramidus\'\' individuals at [[As Duma]] in the [[Gona]] Western Margin of Ethiopia\'s [[Afar Region]].[{{cite web |title=New Fossil Hominids of Ardipithecus ramidus from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia |url=http://www.stoneageinstitute.org/news/gona_nature_paper.shtml#1 |accessdate=2009-01-30 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624005441/http://www.stoneageinstitute.org/news/gona_nature_paper.shtml |archivedate=2008-06-24}}] The fossils were dated to between 4.35 and 4.45 million years old.[{{cite web | url=http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/1822.html | author = Indiana University News Release | title = Anthropologists find 4.5 million-year-old hominid fossils in Ethiopia | accessdate = 2009-01-30| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090214231444/http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/1822.html| archivedate= 14 February 2009 | deadurl= no}}]\n\n\'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\' had a small brain, measuring between 300 and 350 cm3. This is slightly smaller than a modern [[bonobo]] or female [[common chimpanzee]] brain, but much smaller than the brain of [[Australopithecus|australopithecines]] like Lucy (~400 to 550 cm3) and roughly 20% the size of the modern \'\'Homo sapiens\'\' brain. Like common chimpanzees, \'\'A. ramidus\'\' was much more [[Prognathism|prognathic]] than modern humans.[{{cite journal | title=The \'\'Ardipithecus ramidus skull\'\' and its implications for hominid origins | journal=Science | last=Suwa | first=G | date=2 October 2009| volume=326 | issue=5949 | pages=68, 68e1?68e7 | doi=10.1126/science.1175825 | last2=Asfaw | first2=B. | last3=Kono | first3=R. T. | last4=Kubo | first4=D. | last5=Lovejoy | first5=C. O. | last6=White | first6=T. D. | pmid=19810194|bibcode = 2009Sci...326...68S |display-authors=etal}}]\n\nThe teeth of \'\'A. ramidus\'\' lacked the specialization of other apes, and suggest that it was a generalized [[omnivore]] and [[frugivore]] (fruit eater) with a diet that did not depend heavily on foliage, fibrous plant material (roots, tubers, etc.), or hard and or abrasive food. The size of the upper [[canine tooth]] in \'\'A. ramidus\'\' males was not distinctly different from that of females. Their upper canines were less sharp than those of modern common chimpanzees in part because of this decreased upper canine size, as larger upper canines can be honed through wear against teeth in the lower mouth. The features of the upper canine in \'\'A. ramidus\'\' contrast with the [[sexual dimorphism]] observed in common chimpanzees, where males have significantly larger and sharper upper canine teeth than females.[{{cite journal | title=Paleobiological implications of the \'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\' dentition | journal=Science | date=2 October 2009| last=Suwa | first=G | volume=326 | issue=5949 | pages=69, 94?99 | doi=10.1126/science.1175824 | last2=Kono | first2=R. T. | last3=Simpson | first3=S. W. | last4=Asfaw | first4=B. | last5=Lovejoy | first5=C. O. | last6=White | first6=T. D. | pmid=19810195|bibcode = 2009Sci...326...94S |display-authors=etal}}]\n\nThe less pronounced nature of the upper canine teeth in \'\'A. ramidus\'\' has been used to infer aspects of the [[Primatology#Primatology in sociobiology|social behavior]] of the species and more ancestral hominids. In particular, it has been used to suggest that the [[last common ancestor]] of hominids and African apes was characterized by relatively little aggression between males and between groups. This is markedly different from social patterns in common chimpanzees, among which intermale and intergroup aggression are typically high. Researchers in a 2009 study said that this condition \"compromises the living chimpanzee as a behavioral model for the ancestral hominid condition.\"[\n\n\'\'A. ramidus\'\' existed more recently than the [[most recent common ancestor]] of humans and chimpanzees ([[Chimpanzee-human last common ancestor|CLCA or \'\'Pan\'\'-\'\'Homo\'\' LCA]]) and thus is not fully representative of that common ancestor. Nevertheless, it is in some ways unlike chimpanzees, suggesting that the common ancestor differs from the modern chimpanzee. After the chimpanzee and human lineages diverged, both underwent substantial evolutionary change. Chimp feet are specialized for grasping trees; \'\'A. ramidus\'\' feet are better suited for walking. The canine teeth of \'\'A. ramidus\'\' are smaller, and equal in size between males and females, which suggests reduced male-to-male conflict, increased pair-bonding, and increased parental investment. \"Thus, fundamental reproductive and social behavioral changes probably occurred in hominids long before they had enlarged brains and began to use stone tools,\" the research team concluded.][{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/376558b0 | last1 = Kappelman | first1 = John| last2 = Fleagle | first2 = John G.| date = 1995 | title = Age of early hominids | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 376 | issue = 6541| pages = 558?559 |bibcode = 1995Natur.376..558K }}]\n\nThe fossil is regarded by its describers as shedding light on a stage of human evolution about which little was known, more than a million years before [[Lucy (Australopithecus)|Lucy]] (\'\'Australopithecus afarensis\'\'), the iconic early human ancestor candidate who lived 3.2 million years ago, and was discovered in 1974 just {{convert|74|km|mi|abbr=on}} away from Ardi\'s discovery site. However, because the \"Ardi\" skeleton is no more than 200,000 years older than the earliest fossils of \'\'Australopithecus\'\', and may in fact be younger than they are,[ some researchers doubt that it can represent a direct ancestor of \'\'Australopithecus\'\'.\n\nSome researchers infer from the form of her pelvis and limbs and the presence of her [[Abduction (kinesiology)|abductable]] [[hallux]], that \"Ardi\" was a [[facultative biped]]: [[biped]]al when moving on the ground, but [[quadruped]]al when moving about in tree branches.][{{cite journal |last=White |first=Tim D. |author2=Asfaw, Berhane|author3=Beyene, Yonas|author4=Haile-Selassie, Yohannes|author5=Lovejoy, C. Owen|author6=Suwa, Gen|author7=WoldeGabriel, Giday|author7-link=Giday WoldeGabriel|date=2009 |title=\'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\' and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=326 |issue=5949 |pages=75?86 |doi=10.1126/science.1175802 |pmid=19810190|bibcode = 2009Sci...326...64W }}][{{cite web|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/10/091001-oldest-human-skeleton-ardi-missing-link-chimps-ardipithecus-ramidus.html |title=Oldest Skeleton of Human Ancestor Found |author=Jamie Shreeve |publisher=[[National Geographic magazine]] |date=2009-10-01 |accessdate=2009-10-01| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20091004002647/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/10/091001-oldest-human-skeleton-ardi-missing-link-chimps-ardipithecus-ramidus.html| archivedate= 4 October 2009 | deadurl= no}}][{{cite web|url=http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2009/1001/1|title=Ancient Skeleton May Rewrite Earliest Chapter of Human Evolution|author=Ann Gibbons|publisher=[[Science magazine]]|accessdate=2009-10-01| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20091004003404/http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/2009/1001/1| archivedate= 4 October 2009 | deadurl= no}}] \'\'A. ramidus\'\' had a more primitive walking ability than later hominids, and could not walk or run for long distances.[{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8285180.stm | work=BBC News | title=Fossil finds extend human story | date=2009-10-01 | first=Jonathan | last=Amos}}] The teeth suggest [[omnivory]], and are more generalised than those of modern apes.[{{cite journal |last=Gibbons |first=Ann |date=2009 |title=A New Kind of Ancestor: \'\'Ardipithecus\'\' Unveiled |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=326 |issue=5949 |pages=36?40 |doi=10.1126/science.326_36 |pmid=19797636|bibcode = 2009Sci...326...36G }}] and is dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago.[{{cite journal |last=Haile-Selassie |first=Yohannes |author2=Suwa, Gen |author3=White, Tim D. |date=2004 |title=Late Miocene Teeth from Middle Awash, Ethiopia, and Early Hominid Dental Evolution |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=303 |issue=5663 |pages=1503?1505 |doi=10.1126/science.1092978 |pmid=15001775 |bibcode = 2004Sci...303.1503H }}]\n\nThe specific name comes from the [[Afar language|Afar]] word for \"basal family ancestor\".[{{cite book| last = Ellis| first = Richard| authorlink = Richard Ellis (biologist) | title = No Turning Back: The Life and Death of Animal Species| publisher = Harper Perennial | date = 2004| location = New York| pages = 92| isbn =0-06-055804-0 }}]\n\n== Life-style ==\nThe toe and pelvic structure of \'\'A. ramidus\'\' suggest to some researchers that the organism walked erect.[{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nature09709 | last1 = Wood | first1 = Bernard| last2 = Harrison | first2 = Terry| date = 2011 | title = The evolutionary context of the first hominins | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 470 | pages = 347?35 |bibcode = 2011Natur.470..347W | issue = 7334 }}] Independent researcher such as Esteban E. Sarmiento of the Human Evolution Foundation in New Jersey, had systematically compared in 2010 the identifying characters of apes and human ancestral fossils in relation to \'\'Ardipithecus\'\', and concluded that the comparison data is not sufficient to support an exclusive human lineage. Sarmiento noted that \'\'Ardipithecus\'\' does not share any characters exclusive to humans and some of its characters (those in the wrist and basicranium) suggest it diverged from the common human/African ape stock prior to the human, chimpanzee and gorilla divergence [{{cite journal|last1=Sarmiento|first1=E. E.|title=Comment on the Paleobiology and Classification of Ardipithecus ramidus|journal=Science|date=2010|volume=328|issue=5982|pages=1105?1105|doi=10.1126/science.1184148|pmid=20508113|bibcode = 2010Sci...328.1105S }}] His comparative (narrow [[allometry]]) study in 2011 on the molar and body segment lengths (which included living primates of similar body size) noted that some dimensions including short upper limbs, and [[metacarpals]] are reminiscent of humans, but other dimensions such as long toes and relative molar surface area are great ape-like. Sarmiento concluded that such length measures can change back and forth during evolution and are not very good indicators of relatedness. The \'\'Ardipithecus\'\' length measures, however, are good indicators of function and together with dental isotope data and the fauna and flora from the fossil site indicate \'\'Ardipithecus\'\' was mainly a terrestrial quadruped collecting a large portion of its food on the ground. Its arboreal behaviors would have been limited and suspension from branches solely from the upper limbs rare.[{{cite journal|last1=Sarmiento|first1=E.E.|last2=Meldrum|first2=D.J.|title=Behavioral and phylogenetic implications of a narrow allometric study of Ardipithecus ramidus|journal=HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology|date=2011|volume=62|issue=2|pages=75?108|doi=10.1016/j.jchb.2011.01.003|pmid=21388620}}]\n\nHowever, some later studies still argue for its classification in the human lineage. Comparative study in 2013 on carbon and oxygen stable isotopes within modern and fossil [[tooth enamel]] revealed that \'\'Ardipithecus\'\' fed both [[Arboreal locomotion|arboreally]] (on trees) and on the ground in a more open habitat, unlike chimpanzees and extinct ape \'\'[[Sivapithecus]]\'\', thereby differentiating them from apes.[{{cite journal|last1=Nelson|first1=S. V.|title=Chimpanzee fauna isotopes provide new interpretations of fossil ape and hominin ecologies|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|date=2013|volume=280|issue=1773|pages=20132324?20132324|doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.2324|pmid=24197413|pmc=3826229}}] In 2014 it was reported that the hand bones of \'\'Ardipithecus\'\', \'\'[[Australopithecus sediba]]\'\' and \'\'[[A. afarensis]]\'\' consist of distinct human-lineage feature (which is the presence of third metacarpal [[Styloid process (radius)|styloid process]], that is absent in apes).[{{cite journal|last1=Ward|first1=C. V.|last2=Tocheri|first2=M. W.|last3=Plavcan|first3=J. M.|last4=Brown|first4=F. H.|last5=Manthi|first5=F. K.|title=Early Pleistocene third metacarpal from Kenya and the evolution of modern human-like hand morphology|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=2013|volume=111|issue=1|pages=121?124|doi=10.1073/pnas.1316014110|pmid=24344276|pmc=3890866|bibcode = 2014PNAS..111..121W }}] Unique brain organisations (such as lateral shift of the carotid foramina, mediolateral abbreviation of the lateral [[Tympanic cavity|tympanic]], and a shortened, trapezoidal [[Occipital lobe|basioccipital]] element) in \'\'Ardipithecus\'\' are also found only \'\'Australopithecus\'\' and \'\'Homo\'\' clade.[{{cite journal|last1=Kimbel|first1=W. H.|last2=Suwa|first2=G.|last3=Asfaw|first3=B.|last4=Rak|first4=Y.|last5=White|first5=T. D.|title=\'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\' and the evolution of the human cranial base|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=2014|volume=111|issue=3|pages=948?953|doi=10.1073/pnas.1322639111|pmid=24395771|pmc=3903226|bibcode = 2014PNAS..111..948K }}] Comparison of the tooth root morphology with those of \'\'[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]\'\' also indicated strong resemblance,[{{cite journal|last1=Emonet|first1=Edouard-Georges|last2=Andossa|first2=Likius|last3=Ta?sso Mackaye|first3=Hassane|last4=Brunet|first4=Michel|title=Subocclusal dental morphology of sahelanthropus tchadensis and the evolution of teeth in hominins|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=2014|volume=153|issue=1|pages=116?123|doi=10.1002/ajpa.22400|pmid=24242778}}] implying its correct inclusion in human lineage.\n\nIn a study that assumes the hominin status of \'\'Ardithecus ramidus\'\', it has been argued the species represents a [[Heterochrony|heterochronic]] alteration of the more general great ape body plan.[Clark, G.; Henneberg, M. \'The life history of Ardipithecus ramidus: a heterochronic model of sexual and social maturation\'. \'\'Anthropological Review\'\', Volume 78, Issue 2 (June 2015). http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/anre.2015.78.issue-2/anre-2015-0009/anre-2015-0009.xml?format=INT] In this study the resemblance of the species\' craniofacial moprhology with that of subadult chimpanzees is attributed to dissociation of craniofacial growth from brain growth and associated life history trajectories such as eruption of the first molar and age of first birth. Consequently, it is argued the species represents a unique ontogeny unlike any extant ape. The reduced growth in the sub-nasal alveolar region of the face, which houses the projecting canine complex in chimpanzees, suggests the species had rates of growth and reproductive biology unlike any living primate species. In this sense the species may show the first trend towards human social, parenting and sexual psychology. Consequently, the authors argue it is no longer tenable to extrapolate from chimpanzees in reconstructions of early hominin social and mating behaviour, providing further evidence against the so-called \'chimpanzee referential model\'.[Sayers, K et al. \'Human Evolution and the Chimpanzee referential Model\' \'\'Annual Review of Anthropology\'\', Vol. 41: 119-138.] As the authors write when discussing the species unusual pattern of cranio-dental growth and the light it may throw on the origins of human sociality:\n\n\'The contrast [of humans] with chimpanzees is instructive, for when humans start developing broader social bonds after the permanent dentition begins erupting, at the same developmental milestone, chimpanzee facial projection increases. In other words, humans seem to have replaced craniofacial growth with an extended and intensified period of socio-emotional development. As \'\'A. ramidus\'\' no longer has an ontogeny that results in the development of a prognathic jaw with a C/P3 complex (which is one of the most important means by which males vie for status within the mating hierarchies of other primate species), young and sub-adult members of the species must have pursued other avenues by which to become reproductively successful members of the social group. The implication of these interspecific differences is that \'\'A. ramidus\'\' would have most likely had a period of infant and juvenile socialisation different from that of chimpanzees. Consequently, it is possible that in \'\'A.ramidus\'\' we see the first, albeit incipient trend toward human forms of child socialisation and social organisation\'.[Clark, G.; Henneberg, M. pp126-7.]\n\nIt should be noted that this view has yet to be corroborated by more detailed studies of the ontogeny of \'\'A.ramidus\'\'. The study also provides support for Stephen Jay Gould\'s theory in [[Ontogeny and Phylogeny (book)|\'\'Ontogeny and Phylogeny\'\']] that the paedomorphic form of early hominin craniofacial morphology results from heterochronic dissociation of growth trajectories.\n\n== See also ==\n*[[Ardi]]\n*[[Chimpanzee-human last common ancestor]]\n*[[Lucy (Australopithecus)]], 3.2 million years extinct hominin\n* [[List of human evolution fossils]] \'\'(with images)\'\'\n\n== References ==\n{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}\n\n== External links ==\n{{Wikispecies}}\n{{Commons category|Ardipithecus}}\n*[http://www.sciencemag.org/ardipithecus/ Science Magazine: \'\'Ardipithecus\'\' special] (requires free registration)\n* The Smithsonian Institution\'s Human Origins Program:\n**[http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/ardipithecus-kadabba Ardipithecus kadabba]\n**[http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/ardipithecus-ramidus Ardipithecus ramidus]\n*[http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/ardipithecusramidus.htm \'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\'] at Archaeology info\n*[http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/human-evolution/human-ancestor \'\'Explore Ardipithecus\'\'] at [[National Geographic Magazine|NationalGeographic.com]]\n*[http://www.sciencemag.org/content/326/5949/64.full?sid=0e89e15f-0594-40ef-9dce-2b9b9f48d9e6 \'\'Ardipithecus ramidus\'\' - Science Journal Article]\n*[http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/ardipithecus/ardipithecus.html Discovering Ardi - Discovery Channel]\n\n{{Human Evolution}}\n{{Breakthrough of the Year}}\n\n[[Category:Hominini]]\n[[Category:Pliocene primates]]\n[[Category:Transitional fossils]]\n[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 1995]]\n[[Category:Prehistoric Ethiopia]]\n[[Category:Miocene first appearances]]\n[[Category:Zanclean extinctions]]'
'Assembly_line' '{{for|the video game company|The Assembly Line}}\n[[File:A321 final assembly (9351765668).jpg|thumb|300px|An [[Airbus A321]] on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus plant at [[Hamburg Finkenwerder Airport]].]]\n[[Image:Hyundai car assembly line.jpg|thumb|[[Hyundai]]\'s car assembly line.]]\n\nAn \'\'\'assembly line\'\'\' is a [[manufacturing]] process (most of the time called a \'\'progressive assembly\'\') in which parts (usually [[interchangeable parts]]) are added as the semi-finished assembly moves from workstation to work station where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a finished product can be assembled faster and with less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.\n\nAssembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as [[automobile]]s and other [[transportation]] equipment, [[household]] appliances and [[Consumer electronics|electronic goods]].\n\n==Concept==\n[[File:Final assembly 3.jpg|thumb|[[Lotus Cars]] assembly line as of 2008]]\nAssembly lines are designed for the sequential organization of [[worker]]s, [[tool]]s or machines, and parts. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible. All parts or assemblies are handled either by [[conveyor]]s or motorized vehicles such as [[fork lifts]], or [[gravity]], with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by machines such as [[overhead crane]]s or fork lifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation.\n\nAccording to [[Henry Ford]]:\n\n{{quote|The principles of assembly are these:\n\n:(1) Place the tools and the men in the sequence of the operation so that each component part shall travel the least possible distance while in the process of finishing.\n\n:(2) Use work slides or some other form of carrier so that when a workman completes his operation, he drops the part always in the same place?which place must always be the most convenient place to his hand?and if possible have gravity carry the part to the next workman for his own.\n\n:(3) Use sliding assembling lines by which the parts to be assembled are delivered at convenient distances.[{{Harvnb|Ford|Crowther|1922}}, p. 45 (on line version), p. 80 (print version)]}}\n\n==Simple example==\n\nConsider the assembly of a [[car]]: assume that certain steps in the assembly line are to install the engine, install the hood, and install the wheels (in that order, with arbitrary interstitial steps); only one of these steps can be done at a time. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time. If [[engine]] installation takes 20 minutes, [[Hood (vehicle)|hood]] installation takes five minutes, and [[wheel]]s installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes.\n\nIn an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously. When one station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, a total of three different cars can be operated on at the same time, each one at a different stage of its assembly.\n\nAfter finishing its work on the first car, the engine installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the second car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station and be fitted with wheels. After the engine has been installed on the second car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the third car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car?s engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the hood station; meanwhile, subsequent cars (if any) can be moved to the engine installation station.\n\nAssuming no loss of time when moving a car from one station to another, the longest stage on the assembly line determines the [[throughput (business)|throughput]] (20 minutes for the engine installation) so a car can be produced every 20 minutes, once the first car taking 35 minutes has been produced.\n\n==History==\nBefore the [[Industrial Revolution]], most manufactured products were made individually by hand. A single [[Artisan|craftsman]] or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as [[File (tool)|files]] and [[knives]] to create the individual parts. They would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together ([[craft production]]).\n\n[[Division of labor]] was practiced in China where state run monopolies [[mass-produced]] metal agricultural implements, china and armor and weapons centuries before it appeared in Europe on the eve of the Industrial Revolution.[{{harvnb|Merson|1990||p=}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}] [[Adam Smith]] discussed the [[division of labour]] in the manufacture of [[pins]] at length in his book \'\'[[The Wealth of Nations]]\'\' (published in 1776).\n\nThe [[Venetian Arsenal]], dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed. At the peak of its [[efficiency]] in the early 16th century, the [[Venetian Arsenal]] employed some 16,000 people who could apparently produce nearly one ship each day, and could fit out, arm, and provision a newly built [[galley]] with standardized parts on an assembly-line basis. Although the Venice Arsenal lasted until the early [[Industrial Revolution]], production line methods did not become common even then.\n\n===Industrial revolution===\n\nThe [[Industrial Revolution]] led to a proliferation of manufacturing and invention. Many industries, notably [[textile]]s, [[firearm]]s, [[clockmaking|clocks and watches]],[[[G.N. Georgano]] 1985.{{full|date=December 2014}}] [[horse-drawn vehicle]]s, [[Locomotive|railway locomotive]]s, [[sewing machine]]s, and [[bicycle]]s, saw expeditious improvement in materials handling, machining, and assembly during the 19th century, although modern concepts such as [[industrial engineering]] and [[logistics]] had not yet been named.\n\n[[File:PulleyShip.JPG|thumb|right|The [[Pulley#Block and tackle|pulley block]] was the first manufacture to become fully automated at the [[Portsmouth Block Mills]] in the early 19th century.]]\n\nThe automatic [[flour]] [[Mill (grinding)|mill]] built by [[Oliver Evans]] in 1785 was called the beginning of modern [[bulk material handling]] by Roe (1916). Evans\'s mill used a leather belt bucket elevator, [[screw conveyor]]s, canvas belt conveyors, and other mechanical devices to completely automate the process of making flour. The innovation spread to other mills and breweries.[{{harvnb|Roe|1916|p=}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}][{{harvnb|Hounshell|1984|p=}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}]\n\nProbably the earliest industrial example of a linear and continuous assembly process is the [[Portsmouth Block Mills]], built between 1801 and 1803. [[Marc Isambard Brunel]] (father of [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]), with the help of [[Henry Maudslay]] and others, designed 22 types of machine tools to make the parts for the rigging [[Block (sailing)|blocks]] used by the [[Royal Navy]]. This factory was so successful that it remained in use until the 1960s, with the workshop still visible at [[HMNB Portsmouth|HM Dockyard]] in [[Portsmouth]], and still containing some of the original machinery.\n\nOne of the earliest examples of an almost modern factory layout, designed for easy material handling, was the [[Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company|Bridgewater Foundry]]. The factory grounds were bordered by the [[Bridgewater Canal]] and the [[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]]. The buildings were arranged in a line with a railway for carrying the work going through the buildings. [[Crane (machine)|Crane]]s were used for lifting the heavy work, which sometimes weighed in the tens of tons. The work passed sequentially through to erection of framework and final assembly.[{{harvnb|Musson|Robinson|1969|pp=491?5}}]\n\n[[Image:Bridgewater foundary.gif|thumb|left|The [[Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company|Bridgewater Foundry]], pictured in 1839, one of the earliest factories to use an almost modern [[Process layout|layout]], workflow, and material-handling system.]]\n\nThe first flow assembly line was initiated at the factory of [[Richard Garrett & Sons]], Leiston Works in [[Leiston]] in the [[English county]] of [[Suffolk]] for the manufacture of [[portable steam engine]]s. The assembly line area was called \'[[Long Shop Museum|The Long Shop]]\' on account of its length and was fully operational by early 1853. The [[boiler]] was brought up from the foundry and put at the start of the line, and as it progressed through the building it would stop at various stages where new parts would be added. From the upper level, where other parts were made, the lighter parts would be lowered over a balcony and then fixed onto the machine on the ground level. When the machine reached the end of the shop, it would be completed.\n[{{cite web |url= http://www.industriouseast.org.uk/index.php?pageId=147&anchor=164&filter=gb |title= Long Shop Museum |accessdate= 2012-12-17}}{{full|date= December 2014}}]\n\n===Interchangeable parts===\n\nDuring the early 19th century, the development of [[machine tool]]s such as the [[screw-cutting lathe]], [[Planer (metalworking)|metal planer]], and [[milling machine]], and of toolpath control via [[Jig (tool)|jigs]] and [[Fixture (tool)|fixtures]], provided the prerequisites for the modern assembly line by making [[interchangeable parts]] a practical reality.\n\n===Late 19th century steam and electric conveyors===\n\nSteam powered [[conveyor lift]]s began being used for loading and unloading ships some time in the last quarter of the 19th century.[{{harvnb|Wells|1890|p=}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}] Hounshell (1984) shows a {{circa|1885}} sketch of an electric powered conveyor moving cans through a filling line in a canning factory.\n\nThe [[meatpacking]] industry of [[Chicago]] is believed to be one of the first industrial assembly lines (or dis-assembly lines) to be utilized in the United States starting in 1867. Workers would stand at fixed stations and a pulley system would bring the meat to each worker and they would complete one task. Henry Ford and others have written about the influence of this [[slaughterhouse]] practice on the later developments at Ford Motor Company.\n\n===20th century===\n\n[[File:Ford assembly line - 1913.jpg|right|thumb|Ford assembly line, 1913. The [[Ignition magneto|magneto]] assembly line was the first.]]\n[[Image:A-line1913.jpg|thumb|1913 Experimenting with mounting body on Model T [[chassis]]. Ford tested various assembly methods to optimize the procedures before permanently installing the equipment. The actual assembly line used an [[overhead crane]] to mount the body.]]\n[[File:Ford Model T Assembly Line(1919).webm|thumb|thumbtime=2|Ford Model T assembly line circa 1919.]]\n[[File:Model T assembling circa 1924.webm|thumb|thumbtime=6||start=6|end=47|Ford Model T assembly line circa 1924.]]\n[[File:Ford assembly line(1930).webm|thumb|thumbtime=6|Ford assembly line circa 1930.]]\n[[File:Ford assembly line (1947).webm|thumb|thumbtime=6|Ford assembly line circa 1947.]]\nAccording to a book entitled \'\'Michigan Yesterday & Today\'\' authored by Robert W. Domm, the modern assembly line and its basic concept is credited to [[Ransom Olds]], who used it to build the first mass-produced automobile, the [[Oldsmobile Curved Dash]].[{{harvnb|Domm|2009|p=29}}] Olds [[patented]] the assembly line concept, which he put to work in his [[Olds Motor Vehicle Company]] factory in 1901.[{{cite web |first= Phil |last= Ament |url= http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/assbline.htm |title= Assembly Line History: Invention of the Assembly Line |publisher= Ideafinder.com |accessdate= 2011-10-15}}] This development is often overshadowed by [[Henry Ford]], who perfected the assembly line by installing driven [[conveyor belts]] that could produce a [[Model T]] in 93 minutes.[{{cite web |url= http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/fords-assembly-line-starts-rolling |title= Ford\'s assembly line starts rolling |work= This Day in History |publisher= [[History (U.S. TV channel)|The History Channel]] |accessdate=2011-11-30}}] It had immense influence on the world.\n\nThe basic kernel of an assembly line concept was introduced to [[Ford Motor Company]] by William \"Pa\" Klann upon his return from visiting [[Gustavus Franklin Swift|Swift & Company\'s slaughterhouse]] in Chicago and viewing what was referred to as the \"disassembly line\", where carcasses were butchered as they moved along a conveyor. The efficiency of one person removing the same piece over and over caught his attention. He reported the idea to [[Peter E. Martin]], soon to be head of Ford production, who was doubtful at the time but encouraged him to proceed. Others at Ford have claimed to have put the idea forth to [[Henry Ford]], but Pa Klann\'s slaughterhouse revelation is well documented in the archives at the Henry Ford Museum[{{cite document |last= Klann |first= W. C. |date= n.d. |title= Reminiscences |id= Accession 65 |publisher= Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village Archives}}] and elsewhere, making him an important contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept. The process was an evolution by trial and error of a team consisting primarily of [[Peter E. Martin]], the factory superintendent; [[Charles E. Sorensen]], Martin\'s assistant; [[C. Harold Wills]], draftsman and toolmaker; [[Clarence W. Avery]]; [[Charles Ebender]]; and [[J?zsef Galamb]]. Some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout of [[machine tool]] placement that [[Walter Flanders]] had been doing at Ford up to 1908.\n\nIn 1922 Ford (through his ghostwriter Crowther) said of his 1913 assembly line:\n\n{{quote|I believe that this was the first moving line ever installed. The idea came in a general way from the overhead trolley that the Chicago packers use in dressing beef.[{{harvnb|Ford|Crowther|1922|p= 81}}]}}\n\n[[Charles E. Sorensen]], in his 1956 memoir \'\'My Forty Years with Ford\'\', presented a different version of development that was not so much about individual ?inventors? as a gradual, logical development of [[industrial engineering]]:\n\n{{quote|What was worked out at Ford was the practice of moving the work from one worker to another until it became a complete unit, then arranging the flow of these units at the right time and the right place to a moving final assembly line from which came a finished product. Regardless of earlier uses of some of these principles, the direct line of succession of mass production and its intensification into automation stems directly from what we worked out at Ford Motor Company between 1908 and 1913. Henry Ford is generally regarded as the father of mass production. He was not. He was the sponsor of it.[{{harvnb|Sorensen|1956|p=116}}.]}}\n\nAs a result of these developments in method, Ford\'s cars came off the line in three-minute intervals. This was much faster than previous methods, increasing production by eight to one (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower.[ It was so successful, [[paint]] became a bottleneck. Only [[japan black]] would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast-drying [[Duco]] [[lacquer]] was developed in 1926.][\n\nThe assembly line technique was an integral part of the diffusion of the automobile into American society. Decreased costs of production allowed the cost of the Model T to fall within the budget of the American middle class. In 1908, the price of a Model T was around $825, and by 1912 it had decreased to around $575. This price reduction is comparable to a reduction from $15,000 to $10,000 in dollar terms from the year 2000. In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months\' pay.][\n\nFord\'s complex safety procedures?especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about?dramatically reduced the rate of [[injury]]. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called \"[[Fordism]]\", and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the take-off of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.\n\nFord at one point considered suing other car companies because they used the assembly line in their production, but decided against it, realizing it was essential to creation and expansion of the industry as a whole. {{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}\n\nIn the [[automotive industry]], its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide. Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1919, Vulcan (Southport, Lancashire) was the first native European manufacturer to adopt it. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke by not being able to compete; by 1930, 250 companies which did not had disappeared.][\n\nThe massive demand for military hardware in World War II prompted assembly-line techniques in shipbuilding and aircraft production. Thousands of [[Liberty Ship]]s were built making extensive use of prefabrication, enabling ship assembly to be completed in weeks or even days. After having produced fewer than 3,000 planes for the United States Military in 1939, American aircraft manufacturers built over 300,000 planes in World War II. [[Vultee]] pioneered the use of the powered assembly line for aircraft manufacturing. Other companies quickly followed. As William S. Knudsen of the National Defense Advisory Commission observed, \"We won because we smothered the enemy in an avalanche of production, the like of which he had never seen, nor dreamed possible.\"][{{harvnb|Herman|2012|pp=176?91}}][{{harvnb|Parker|2012|pp=5?12}}]\n\n==Improved working conditions==\nIn his 1922 autobiography,[ Henry Ford mentions several benefits of the assembly line including:\n\n*Workers do no heavy lifting.\n*No stooping or bending over.\n*No special training required.\n*There are jobs that almost anyone can do.\n*Provided employment to immigrants.\n\nThe gains in [[productivity]] allowed Ford to increase worker pay from $1.50 per day to $5.00 per day once employees reached three years of service on the assembly line. Ford continued on to reduce the hourly work week while continuously lowering the Model T price. These goals appear altruistic; however, it has been argued that they were implemented by Ford in order to reduce high employee turnover: when the assembly line was introduced in 1913, it was discovered that ?every time the company wanted to add 100 men to its factory personnel, it was necessary to hire 963? in order to counteract the natural distaste the assembly line seems to have inspired.][{{cite web |last= Crawford |first= Matthew |title= Shop Class as Soulcraft |url= http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/shop-class-as-soulcraft |work= [[The New Atlantis (journal)|The New Atlantis]] }}]\n\n==Sociological problems==\n[[Sociology|Sociological]] work has explored the [[social alienation]] and [[boredom]] that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long.[{{cite journal |jstor= 4105309 |title= Alienation and Freedom: The Factory Worker and His Industry |authorlink= Bob Blauner |first= Robert |last= Blauner |journal= [[Technology and Culture]] |volume= 6 |issue= 3 |date= Summer 1965 |pages= 518?519}}] \n\nOne of Capitalism\'s most famous critics: [[Karl Marx]] highlighted in the \'\'Entfremdung\'\' theory the fact that in order to achieve job satisfaction workers need to see themselves in the objects they\'ve created, products should be \"mirrors in which workers see their reflected essential nature.\" Marx viewed labour as a chance for us to externalize facets of our personality. They argue that specialization makes it incredibly difficult for any worker to achieve a sense of genuine contribution they may be making to the real needs of humanity. The repetitive nature of specialized tasks causes, they say, a feeling of disconnection between what a worker does all day and who they really are and would ideally be able to contribute to existence. Marx also argued that specialised jobs are insecure, since they make the worker utterly expendable the minute costs rise and savings can be made through technology. [Marx, Karl. \"Comment on James Mill,\" \'\'Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844\'\': 1844.]\n\nSince workers have to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day [[Repetitive strain injury|repetitive stress injuries]] are a possible pathology of [[occupational safety]]. [[Industrial noise]] also proved dangerous. When it was not too high, workers were often prohibited from talking. [[Charles Piaget]], a [[skilled worker]] at the [[LIP factory]], recalled that beside being prohibited from speaking, the semi-skilled workers had only 25 centimeters in which to move.[{{cite interview|url = http://www.mouvements.asso.fr/spip.php?article52|title = Le?ons d\'autogestion|trans-title = Autogestion Lessons|interviewer = |language = fr|deadurl = yes|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/20070707192357/http://www.mouvements.asso.fr:80/spip.php?article52|archivedate = 7 July 2007}}] Industrial [[ergonomics]] later tried to minimize physical trauma.\n\n==See also==\n{{portal|Companies|Business and economics}}\n*[[Production line]]\n*[[Industrial engineering]]\n*[[Fordism]]\n*[[Modern Times (film)]]\n\n==References==\n\n===Footnotes===\n{{Reflist|30em}}\n\n===Works cited===\n{{refbegin|30em}}\n* {{cite book |ref= harv |last= Borth |first= Christy |year= 1945 |title= Masters of Mass Production |publisher= Bobbs-Merrill Company |location= Indianapolis }}\n* {{cite book |ref= harv |first= Robert W. |last= Domm |year= 2009 |title= Michigan Yesterday & Today |location= |publisher= Voyageur Press |url= http://books.google.com/?id=HQdTa9ZXlVAC&pg=PA29 |isbn= 9780760333853}}\n* {{cite book |ref= harv |last1= Ford |first1= Henry |last2= Crowther |first2= Samuel |authorlink= Henry Ford |lastauthoramp= yes |year= 1922 |title= My Life and Work |publisher= Garden City Publishing |location= Garden City, NY |url = http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/7213 |isbn= 0-405-05088-7 }}\n* {{cite book |ref= harv |last= Herman |first= Arthur |year= 2012 |title= Freedom\'s Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II |publisher= Random House |location= New York |isbn= 978-1-4000-6964-4}}\n*{{cite book |ref= harv |last1= Merson |first1= John |year= 1990 |title= The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World |publisher= The Overlook Press |location=Woodstock, NY |isbn= 0-87951-397-7 | postscript= . A companion to the PBS Series \'\'The Genius That Was China\'\'.}}\n*{{cite book |ref= harv |last1=Musson |first1= |last2= Robinson |first2= |lastauthoramp= yes |year=1969 |title= Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution|publisher=University of Toronto Press |location= Toronto |isbn= }}{{full|date=December 2014}}\n* {{cite book |ref= harv |last= Nye |first= David E. |title= America\'s Assembly Line |location= |publisher= MIT Press |year= 2013}}\n* {{cite book |ref= harv |last= Hounshell |first= David A. |year= 1984 |authorlink= David A. Hounshell |title= From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States |publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press |location= Baltimore |isbn= 978-0-8018-2975-8 |lccn= 83016269 }}\n* {{cite book |ref= harv |last= Parker |first= Dana T. |title= Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II |location= Cypress, CA |publisher= |year= 2013 |isbn= 978-0-9897906-0-4}}{{full|date= December 2014}}\n* {{cite book |ref= harv |last= Roe |first= Joseph Wickham |title= English and American Tool Builders |publisher= Yale University Press |year= 1916 |location= New Haven, CT |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage |lccn= 16011753}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv |last= Wells |first= David A. |year= 1890 |title= Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society |publisher= D. Appleton and Co. |location= New York |isbn= 0-543-72474-3|pages=|url= http://books.google.com/?id=2V3qF4MWh_wC }}\n* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|We-Min|1990}} |author= We-Min Chow |year= 1990 |title= Assembly Line Design |location= |publisher= |isbn=}}{{full|date= December 2014}}\n* {{cite book |ref= harv |last= Sorensen |first= Charles E. |last2= Williamson |first2= Samuel T. |authorlink= Charles E. Sorensen |lastauthoramp= yes |year= 1956 |title= My Forty Years with Ford |publisher= Norton |location= New York |lccn= 56010854}}\n{{refend}}\n\n==External links==\n{{Commons category|Assembly lines}}\n* [http://www.assembly-line-balancing.de Homepage for assembly line optimization research]\n* [http://www.advanced-planning.eu/advancedplanninge-373a.htm Assembly line optimization problems]\n* [http://18378092.nhd.weebly.com History of the assembly line and its widespread effects]\n* [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLMu8S6YCS2kIMO-t0Qmx_-XbOKYZ2bNnY Cars Assembly Line]\n\n{{technology}}\n\n{{Interwiki conflict}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Assembly Line}}\n[[Category:Manufacturing]]\n[[Category:Modes of production]]\n[[Category:Manufacturing buildings and structures]]\n[[Category:American inventions]]\n[[Category:Culture of Detroit, Michigan]]\n[[Category:History of science and technology in the United States]]\n[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]\n\n[[ca:Producci? en cadena]]'
'Adelaide' '{{About|the greater metropolitan area known as Adelaide|the city centre|Adelaide city centre|the local government area|City of Adelaide}}\n{{Other uses}}\n{{Use Australian English|date=November 2011}}{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}\n{{Infobox Australian place\n| type = city\n| name = Adelaide\n| state = sa\n| image = Adelaide\'s updated montage.jpg\n| caption = From top to bottom, left to right: [[Adelaide CBD|Central Adelaide]] from [[Mount Lofty]], the [[UniSA]] Building on North Terrace, [[St Peter\'s Cathedral, Adelaide|St Peter\'s Cathedral]], the beachside suburb of [[Glenelg, South Australia|Glenelg]], a rotunda in [[Elder Park]], and [[Victoria Square, Adelaide|Victoria Square]] illuminated in the evening\n| pop = 1,304,631\n| pop_year = 2014\n| pop_footnotes= [{{cite web|title=3218.0 ? Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2013-14|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3218.0Main%20Features152013-14?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3218.0&issue=2013-14&num=&view=|publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]|date=30 June 2014|accessdate=18 April 2015}}]\n| poprank = 5th\n| density = 396.4\n| density_footnotes = (2011)\n| area = {{convert|3,257.7|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}[{{cite web|title=2011 Census Community Profiles, Code 4GADE (GCCSA)|url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2011/communityprofile/4GADE|website=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|accessdate=28 February 2015}}]\n| lga = 18\n| est = 28 December 1836\n| force_national_map = yes\n| latd =34 |latm =55 |lats =44.4 |latNS=S\n| longd =138 |longm =36 |longs =3.6 |longEW=E\n| timezone = [[Australian Central Standard Time|ACST]]\n| utc = +9:30\n| timezone-dst= [[Australian Central Daylight Time|ACDT]]\n| utc-dst = +10:30\n| dist1 = 654\n| dir1 = NW\n| location1= [[Melbourne]][{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1=248650&placename=melbourne&placetype=0&state=VIC&place1=ADELAIDE&place1long=138.601013&place1lat=-34.928692|title=Great Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and MELBOURNE|publisher=Geoscience Australia|date=March 2004}}]\n| dist2 = 958\n| dir2 = West\n| location2= [[Canberra]][{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1=131&placename=canberra&placetype=0&state=ACT&place1=ADELAIDE&place1long=138.601013&place1lat=-34.928692|title=Great Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and CANBERRA|publisher=Geoscience Australia|date=March 2004}}]\n| dist3 = 1161\n| dir3 = West\n| location3= [[Sydney]][{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1=87421&placename=sydney&placetype=0&state=NSW&place1=ADELAIDE&place1long=138.601013&place1lat=-34.928692|title=Great Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and SYDNEY|publisher=Geoscience Australia|date=March 2004}}]\n| dist4 = 1600\n| dir4 = SW\n| location4= [[Brisbane]][{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1=126867&placename=brisbane&placetype=0&state=QLD&place1=ADELAIDE&place1long=138.601013&place1lat=-34.928692|title=Great Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and Brisbane|publisher=Geoscience Australia|date=March 2004}}]\n| dist5 = 2130\n| dir5 = East\n| location5= [[Perth]][{{cite web|url=http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1=304529&placename=perth&placetype=0&state=WA+&place1=ADELAIDE&place1long=138.601013&place1lat=-34.928692|title=Great Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and Perth|publisher=Geoscience Australia|date=March 2004}}]\n| maxtemp = 22.1\n| mintemp = 12.1\n| rainfall = 545.4\n}}\n\'\'\'Adelaide\'\'\' ({{IPAc-en|?|?|d|?|l|e?|d||audio=En-uk-Adelaide.ogg}} {{Respell|AD|?-layd}})[{{cite book | title = Macquarie ABC Dictionary | publisher=The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd | year = 2003 | page = 10 | isbn = 1-876429-37-2}}] is the [[List of Australian capital cities|capital]] city of the state of [[South Australia]], and the [[List of cities in Australia by population|fifth-most populous city of Australia]]. In June 2014, Adelaide had an estimated resident population of 1.30 million.[ The demonym \"Adelaidean\" is used in reference to the city and its residents.][{{cite web |url=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/ipad/salt-adelaides-european-twin/story-fn6br25t-1226028653784 | first = Bernard | last = Salt | date = 27 March 2011 | accessdate=16 April 2011 |title=Adelaide\'s European twin |work=Sunday Mail|location=Adelaide}}] Adelaide is north of the [[Fleurieu Peninsula]], on the [[Adelaide Plains]] between the [[Gulf St Vincent]] and the low-lying [[Mount Lofty Ranges]] which surround the city. Adelaide stretches {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the coast to the foothills, and {{convert|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Gawler]] at its northern extent to [[Sellicks Beach]] in the south.\n\nNamed in honour of [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen]], [[queen consort]] to [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]], the city was founded in 1836 as the [[new town|planned capital]] for a freely-settled British province in Australia. [[William Light|Colonel William Light]], one of Adelaide\'s founding fathers, designed the city and chose its location close to the [[River Torrens]], in the area originally inhabited by the [[Kaurna people]]. Light\'s design set out Adelaide in a [[grid plan|grid layout]], interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares, and entirely surrounded by [[Adelaide Parklands|parklands]]. Early Adelaide was shaped by prosperity and wealth – up until the [[Second World War]], it was Australia\'s third largest city.[{{cite book|first=Patrick|last=Troy|title=A History of European Housing in Australia|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780521777339|pages=188}}] It has been noted for early examples of religious freedom, a commitment to political [[progressivism]] and civil liberties. It has been known as the \"City of Churches\" since the mid-19th century.[[http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=1455 Religion: Diversity], SA Memory. Retrieved on 23 December 2010.]\n\nAs South Australia\'s seat of government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the [[Adelaide city centre|city centre]] along the cultural boulevard of [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]], [[King William Street, Adelaide|King William Street]] and in various districts of the metropolitan area. Today, Adelaide is noted for [[:Category:Festivals in Adelaide|its many festivals]] and sporting events, its food and wine, its long beachfronts, and its large defence and manufacturing sectors. It ranks highly in terms of liveability, being listed in the Top 10 of \'\'[[The Economist Intelligence Unit]]\'s\'\' World\'s Most Liveable Cities index in 2010,[{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/gulliver/2010/02/liveability_rankings|title=Liveability rankings|work=The Economist}}] 2011,[{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/travel/travel-news/melbourne-beats-sydney-in-worlds-most-liveable-city-rankings-20110221-1b29d.html |title=404 |publisher= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20120724115812/http://www.smh.com.au:80/travel/travel-news/melbourne-beats-sydney-in-worlds-most-liveable-city-rankings-20110221-1b29d.html |archivedate=24 July 2012 }}] 2012[{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/gulliver/2012/08/liveability-ranking|title=Liveability ranking|work=The Economist}}] and 2015.[{{cite news|url= http://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2015/08/daily-chart-5 |title=Daily chart|work=The Economist}}] It was also ranked the [[most liveable city]] in Australia by the Property Council of Australia in 2011,[{{Cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/01/22/3118843.htm?section=business |work=[[ABC News|ABC News Online]] |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=22 January 2011 |title=Adelaide crowned nation\'s most livable city |accessdate=23 January 2011}}] 2012[{{Cite news |url=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/adelaide-voted-nations-most-liveable/story-e6frea83-1226309173646 |work=[[AdelaideNow]] |date=25 March 2012 |title=Adelaide voted nation\'s most liveable |accessdate=2 July 2012}}] and 2013.[{{Cite news |url=http://www.smh.com.au/national/adelaide-the-countrys-most-liveable-city-20130304-2ffeh.html |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=4 March 2013 |title=Adelaide the country\'s most liveable city |accessdate=4 March 2013}}]\n\n==History==\n{{Main|History of Adelaide}}\n[[File:Kaurnaland.png|thumb|left|upright|Approximate extent of Kaurna territory, based on the description by Amery (2000)]]\n\n===Before European settlement===\nPrior to its proclamation as a British settlement in 1836, the area around Adelaide was inhabited by the indigenous [[Kaurna people|Kaurna]] [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] nation (pronounced \"Garner\" or \"Gowna\").\n\nKaurna culture and language was almost completely destroyed within a few decades of the European settlement of South Australia in 1836.[[http://www.history.sa.gov.au/history/adelaide_history/adelaide_brief_history.pdf] {{wayback|url=http://www.history.sa.gov.au/history/adelaide_history/adelaide_brief_history.pdf |date=20130515205647 }}] However, extensive documentation by early missionaries and other researchers has enabled a modern revival of both language and culture.\n\n===19th century===\n[[File:Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline of Saxe-Coburg Meiningen by Sir William Beechey.jpg|thumb|right|[[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen]], the city\'s namesake]]\n[[File:Adelaide supplement to the Illustrated Sydney News.png|thumb|right|In July 1876, the Illustrated Sydney News published a special supplement that included an early aerial view of the City of Adelaide, the River Torrens and portion of North Adelaide from a point above Pennington Terrace, North Adelaide.]]\nSouth Australia was officially proclaimed as a new British colony on 28 December 1836, near [[The Old Gum Tree]] in what is now the suburb of [[Glenelg North, South Australia|Glenelg North]]. The event is commemorated in South Australia as [[Proclamation Day]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.holdfast.sa.gov.au/page.aspx?u=1463|title=City of Holdfast Bay ? Proclamation Day|publisher=}}] The site of the colony\'s capital was surveyed and laid out by Colonel William Light, the first Surveyor-General of South Australia, through the design made by the architect [[George Strickland Kingston]].[Johnson and Langmead, [http://www.catalog.slsa.sa.gov.au/record=b1082509 \'\'The Adelaide city plan: fiction and fact\'\'], Wakefield Press, 1986.]\n\nAdelaide was established as a planned colony of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution, based upon the ideas of [[Edward Gibbon Wakefield]]. Wakefield had read accounts of Australian settlement[Wakefield cites:\n* Edward Curr, \'\'An Account of the Colony of Van Diemen\'s Land, principally designed for the use of emigrants\'\', George Cowie & Co., London, 1824;\n* Henry Widdowson, \'\'Present State of Van Diemen\'s Land; comprising an account of its agricultural capabilities, with observations on the present state of farming, &c. &c. pursued in that colony: and other important matters connected with Emigration\'\', S. Robinson, W. Joy and J. Cross, London, and J. Birdsall, Northampton, 1829; and\n* James Atkinson, \'\'An Account of the State of Agriculture & Grazing in New South Wales; Including Observations on the Soils and General Appearance of the Country, and some of its most useful natural productions; with an account of the Various Methods of Clearing and Improving Lands, Breeding and Grazing Live Stock, Erecting Buildings, the System of employing Convicts, and the expense of Labour generally; the Mode of Applying for Grants of Land; with Other Information Important to those who are about to emigrate to that Country: The result of several years\' residence and practical experience in those matters in the Colony\'\'., J. Cross, London, 1826\n] while in prison in London for attempting to abduct an heiress, and realised that the eastern colonies suffered from a lack of available labour, due to the practice of giving land grants to all arrivals.[Wakefield, \'\'Letter from Sydney\'\', December 1829, pp. 99?185, written from Newgate prison. Editor Robert Gouger.] Wakefield\'s idea was for the Government to survey and sell the land at a rate that would maintain land values high enough to be unaffordable for labourers and journeymen.[Wakefield wrote about this under a pseudonym, purporting to be an Australian settler. His subterfuge was so successful that he confused later writers including [[Karl Marx]], who wrote \"It is the great merit of E.G. Wakefield to have discovered not anything new about the Colonies, but to have discovered in the Colonies the truth of as to the condition of capitalist production in the mother-country.\' \'\'Das Kapital\'\', Moscow, 1958, p 766\"] Funds raised from the sale of land were to be used to bring out working class emigrants, who would have to work hard for the monied settlers to ever afford their own land.[\'\'Plan of a Company to be Established for the Purpose of Founding a Colony in Southern Australia, Purchasing Land Therein, and Preparing the Land so Purchased for the Reception of Immigrants\'\', 1832; in Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, Prichard, M. F., (ed.) \'\'The Collected Works of Edward Gibbon Wakefield\'\', Collins, London, 1968, p 290.] As a result of this policy, Adelaide does not share [[Convictism in Australia|the convict settlement history]] of other Australian cities like [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]] and [[Hobart]].\n[[File:North Terrace, 1841.jpg|thumb|right|North Terrace in 1841]]\nAs it was believed that in a colony of free settlers there would be little crime, no provision was made for a gaol in Colonel Light\'s 1837 plan. However, by mid-1837 the \'\'[[South Australian Register]]\'\' was warning of escaped convicts from New South Wales and tenders for a temporary gaol were sought. Following a burglary, a murder, and two attempted murders in Adelaide during March 1838, Governor Hindmarsh created the South Australian Police Force (now named [[South Australia Police]]) in April 1838 under 21-year-old [[Henry Inman (police commander)|Henry Inman]].[J. W. Bull; Early Experiences of Colonial Life in South Australia (Adelaide, 1878) p.67] The first sheriff, Mr Samuel Smart, was wounded during a robbery, and on 2 May 1838 one of the offenders, Michael Magee, became the first person to be hanged in South Australia.[{{cite web |title = Free Settlement |url=http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/free-settlement.html |work=History of Adelaide Gaol |publisher=Environment.sa.gov.au |accessdate=7 September 2010 |archivedate=24 October 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091024014707/http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/free-settlement.html}}] William Baker Ashton was appointed governor of the temporary gaol in 1839, and in 1840 George Strickland Kingston was commissioned to design Adelaide\'s new gaol.[{{cite web |title = Gaol Founders |url=http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/History/Gaol_founders |work=History of Adelaide Gaol |publisher=Environment.sa.gov.au |accessdate=14 August 2012 |archivedate=25 October 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025022018/http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/goal-founders.html}}] Construction of [[Adelaide Gaol]] commenced in 1841.[{{cite web|url=http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/lights-vision.html |title=Light\'s Vision |work=History of Adelaide Gaol |publisher=Environment.sa.gov.au |accessdate=7 September 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20091025021816/http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/lights-vision.html |archivedate=25 October 2009 }}]\n[[File:Karte Adelaide MKL1888.png|thumb|right|upright=1.0|1888 Map of Adelaide, showing the gradual development of its urban layout]]\nAdelaide\'s early history was wrought by economic uncertainty and incompetent leadership.{{Dubious|date=October 2015}} The first governor of South Australia, [[John Hindmarsh]], clashed frequently with others, in particular the Resident Commissioner, [[James Hurtle Fisher]]. The rural area surrounding Adelaide was surveyed by Light in preparation to sell a total of over {{convert|405|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} of land. Adelaide\'s early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock from [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[New South Wales]] and [[Tasmania]]. Wool production provided an early basis for the South Australian economy. Light\'s survey was completed in this period and land was promptly offered for sale to early colonists. {{Citation needed|date=December 2015}} By 1860, wheat farms had been established from [[Encounter Bay]] in the south to [[Clare, South Australia|Clare]] in the north.\n\n[[George Gawler|Governor Gawler]] took over from Hindmarsh in late 1838 and, despite being under orders from the \'\'Select Committee on South Australia\'\' in Britain not to undertake any public works, promptly oversaw construction of a governor\'s house, the [[Adelaide Gaol]], police barracks, a hospital, a [[Customs House Port Adelaide|customs house]] and a wharf at [[Port Adelaide]]. In addition, houses for public officials and missionaries and outstations for police and surveyors were also constructed during Gawler\'s governorship. {{Citation needed|date=December 2015}} Adelaide had also become economically self-sufficient during this period, but at heavy cost: as a result of Gawler\'s public works the colony was heavily in debt and relied on bail-outs from London to stay afloat. {{Citation needed|date=December 2015}} Gawler was recalled and replaced by [[George Edward Grey|Governor Grey]] in 1841. Grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition, although its impact was negligible at this point: silver was discovered in [[Glen Osmond, South Australia|Glen Osmond]] that year, agriculture was well underway, and other mines sprung up all over the state, aiding Adelaide\'s commercial development. The city exported meat, wool, wine, fruit and wheat by the time Grey left in 1845, contrasting with a low point in 1842 when one-third of Adelaide houses were abandoned.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}\n\nTrade links with the rest of the Australian states were established with the [[Murray River]] being successfully navigated in 1853 by [[Francis Cadell (explorer)|Francis Cadell]], an Adelaide resident. South Australia became a [[self-governing colony]] in 1856 with the ratification of a new constitution by the British parliament. [[Secret ballot]]s were introduced, and a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] parliament was elected on 9 March 1857, by which time 109,917 people lived in the province.[{{cite web | author=Blair, Robert D.| year=2001| title=Events in South Australian History 1834?1857 | work=Pioneer Association of South Australia |url=http://www.users.on.net/~rdblair/events-sa.htm | accessdate=10 May 2006}}]\n\nIn 1860 the Thorndon Park reservoir was opened, finally providing an alternative water source to the now turbid River Torrens. Gas street lighting was implemented in 1867, the [[University of Adelaide]] was founded in 1874, the [[South Australian Art Gallery]] opened in 1881 and the [[Happy Valley Reservoir]] opened in 1896. In the 1890s Australia was affected by a severe economic depression, ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism. Financial institutions in Melbourne and banks in Sydney closed. The national fertility rate fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle. The value of South Australia\'s exports nearly halved. Drought and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems, with some families leaving for Western Australia. {{Citation needed|date=January 2016}} Adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold-rush cities of Sydney and Melbourne, and silver and lead discoveries at [[Broken Hill, New South Wales|Broken Hill]] provided some relief. Only one year of deficit was recorded, but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending. Wine and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn. {{Citation needed|date=January 2016}}\n\n===20th century===\n[[File:WestpacHouseAdelaide.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Westpac House]], [[List of tallest buildings in Adelaide|Adelaide\'s tallest building]] at 132 metres (Australia\'s 127th tallest building).[{{cite web |url=http://skyscrapercenter.com/interactive-data/submit?type%5B%5D=building&status%5B%5D=COM&base_region=0&base_country=11&base_city=0&base_height_range=2&base_company=All&base_min_year=0&base_max_year=2016&comp_region=0&comp_country=2&comp_city=0&comp_height_range=3&comp_company=All&comp_min_year=1960&comp_max_year=2016&skip_comparison=on&output%5B%5D=list&dataSubmit=Show+Results |title=Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat database |accessdate=5 July 2015}}]]]\n\nElectric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric trams were transporting passengers in 1909. 28,000 men were sent to fight in World War I. Historian F.W. Crowley examined the reports of visitors in the early 20th century, noting that \"many visitors to Adelaide admired the [[Light\'s Vision|foresighted planning]] of its founders\", as well as pondering on the riches of the young city.[F.K. Crowley, \'\'Modern Australia in Documents: 1901 ? 1939\'\'] Adelaide enjoyed a post-war boom, entering a time of relative prosperity. Its population grew, and it became the 3rd most populous metropolitan area in the country–after Sydney and Melbourne. Its prosperity was short lived, with the return of droughts, having endured the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, and later returning to fortune under strong government leadership. {{Citation needed|date=December 2015}}[[Secondary sector of industry|Secondary industries]] helped reduce the state\'s dependence on [[primary sector of industry|primary industries]]. World War II brought industrial stimulus and diversification to Adelaide under the [[Thomas Playford IV|Playford]] Government, which advocated Adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulnerable location.[Cockburn, S (1991): \'\'Playford - Benevolent Despot.\'\' Axiom Publishing. P. 85. ISBN 0 9594164 4 7] Shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port of [[Whyalla, South Australia|Whyalla]].\n[[File:North Terrace in 1938.jpg|thumb|300px|Intersection of North Terrace and [[King William Street, Adelaide|King William Street]] viewed from [[Parliament House, Adelaide|Parliament House]], 1938.]]\nThe South Australian Government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries. International manufacturers like General Motors [[Holden]] and [[Chrysler Australia|Chrysler]][When Chrysler stopped manufacturing in Adelaide, [[Mitsubishi Motors Australia Limited]] took over the [[Tonsley Park]] factory. After many years of mixed fortunes, Mitsubishi ceased manufacturing at Tonsley Park on 27 March 2008.] made use of these factories around Adelaide, completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to a 20th-century city. A pipeline from [[Mannum, South Australia|Mannum]] brought [[River Murray]] water to Adelaide in 1954 and [[Adelaide International Airport|an airport]] opened at [[West Beach, South Australia|West Beach]] in 1955. An assisted migration scheme brought 215,000 immigrants of many nationalities, mainly European, to South Australia between 1947 and 1973.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} [[Flinders University]] and the [[Flinders Medical Centre]] were established in the 1960s at Bedford Park, south of the city. Today, Flinders Medical Centre is one of the largest teaching hospitals within the South Australia.\n\nThe [[Don Dunstan|Dunstan Governments]] of the 1970s saw something of an Adelaide \'cultural revival\', establishing a wide array of social reforms and overseeing the city becoming a centre of the arts, building upon the biennial \"[[Adelaide Festival of Arts]]\" which commenced in 1960. Adelaide hosted the [[Formula One]] [[Australian Grand Prix]] between 1985 and 1996 on a street circuit in the city\'s east parklands; it then moved to Melbourne in 1996.[{{cite web | title =Adelaide Street Circuit | publisher=Formula 1 Database |url=http://www.f1db.com/f1/page/Adelaide_Street_Circuit | accessdate =13 June 2007}}] The 1991 [[State Bank of South Australia|State Bank]] collapsed during the then economic recession, with its effects lasting until 2004, when ratings agency [[Standard & Poor\'s]] reinstated South Australia\'s AAA credit rating.[{{Cite news | title = All-round country |work=The Australian | page = 14 | date = 29 September 2004}}] Since 1999, the [[Clipsal 500]] [[V8 Supercars]] race has made use of sections of the former Formula One circuit. Adelaide\'s tallest building, built in 1988, was originally known as the State Bank Building. In 1991 it was renamed the Santos Building and in 2006 it was again renamed [[Westpac House]].\n\n===21st century===\n[[File:Adelaide central business district at night.jpg|thumb|300px|The Adelaide central business district at night, 2013.]]\nIn the early years of the 21st century there was a significant increase in the State Government\'s spending on Adelaide\'s infrastructure. The [[Mike Rann|Rann Government]] invested $535 million in a major upgrade of the Adelaide Oval to enable [[Australian Football League|AFL]] to be played in the city centre[Michael Owen, The Australian, 3 December 2009] and more than $2 billion to build a new [[Royal Adelaide Hospital]] on land adjacent to the Adelaide Railway Station.[ABC News, Wednesday 7 June 2006] The Glenelg tramline was extended through the city to Hindmarsh[ABC News, 6 April 2005] and the suburban railway line extended south to Seaford.[ABC News, 13 May 2009]\n\nFollowing a period of stagnancy in the 1990s and 2000s, Adelaide began several major developments and redevelopments. The Adelaide Convention Centre was redeveloped and expanded at a cost of $350 million beginning in 2012.[ABC News, 29 June 2011] Three historic buildings were adapted for modern use: the [[Torrens Building]] in Victoria Square as the Adelaide campus for Carnegie Mellon University, University College London and Torrens University;[News Release Government of SA, 15 May 2005] the Stock Exchange building as the Science Exchange of the Royal Institution Australia; and the Glenside Psychiatric Hospital as the Adelaide Studios of the [[South Australian Film Corporation|SA Film Corporation]]. The government also invested more than $2 billion to build a [[desalination]] plant, powered by renewable energy, as an \'insurance policy\' against droughts affecting Adelaide\'s water supply.[Nick Harmsen, ABC News, Sept 11, 2007] In the Arts the [[Adelaide Festival]], [[Adelaide Fringe Festival|Fringe]] and [[Womadelaide]] became annual events.[Adelaide Advertiser 26 February 2010]\n\n==Geography==\n[[File:Adelaide Metropol.png|thumb|right|Satellite image of Adelaide\'s metropolitan area]]\nAdelaide is north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, on the Adelaide Plains between the Gulf St Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges. The city stretches {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the coast to the foothills, and {{convert|90|km|mi|abbr=on}} from [[Gawler, South Australia|Gawler]] at its northern extent to [[Sellicks Beach, South Australia|Sellicks Beach]] in the south. According to the Regional Development Australia, an Australian government planning initiative, the \"Adelaide Metropolitan Region\" has a total land area of {{convert|870|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, while a more expansive definition by the Australia Bureau of Statistics defines a \"Greater Adelaide\" statistical area totalling {{convert|3,257.7|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. The city sits at an average elevation of {{convert|50|m|ft|}} above sea level. [[Mount Lofty]], east of the Adelaide metropolitan region in the Adelaide Hills at an elevation of {{convert|727|m|ft|}}, is the tallest point of the city and in the state south of [[Burra, South Australia|Burra]].\n[[File:Adelaide Hills aerial.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial view of fields in the [[Adelaide Hills]]]]\nMuch of Adelaide was bushland before British settlement, with some variation ? sandhills, swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast. The loss of the sandhills to urban development had a particularly destructive effect on the coastline due to erosion.[[http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/files/sharedassets/public/coasts/no27.pdf The Adelaide Metropolitan Coastline] \'\'Coastline\'\', South Australian Coastal Protection Board, No. 27, April 1993. Retrieved 6 December 2015.] Where practical, the government has implemented programs to rebuild and vegetate sandhills at several of Adelaide\'s beachside suburbs. Much of the original vegetation has been cleared with what is left to be found in reserves such as the [[Cleland Conservation Park]] and [[Belair National Park]]. A number of creeks and rivers flow through the Adelaide region. The largest are the Torrens and [[Onkaparinga River National Park|Onkaparinga]] catchments. Adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply with the [[Happy Valley Reservoir]] supplying around 40% and the much larger [[Mount Bold Reservoir]] 10% of Adelaide\'s domestic requirements respectively.\n\nAdelaide and its surrounding area is one of the most seismically active regions in Australia. On 1 March 1954 at 3:40 am Adelaide experienced its largest recorded earthquake to date, with the epicentre 12 km from the city centre at [[Darlington, South Australia|Darlington]], and a reported magnitude of 5.6.[C. Kerr-Grant (1955): \'\'The Adelaide Earthquake of 1st March 1954\'\' (PDF). South Australian Museum, 10 November 1955. Retrieved 5 April 2009.][\'\'Adelaide, SA: Earthquake\'\'. EMA Disasters Database. Emergency Management Australia, 13 September 2006. Retrieved 5 April 2009.] There have been smaller earthquakes in 2010, 2011 and 2014.\n\n===Urban layout===\n{{Main|Light\'s Vision}}\n[[File:Adelaide nth tce1.8.jpg|thumb|thumb|left|The corner of [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]] (right) and [[Pulteney Street, Adelaide|Pulteney Street]] (left), looking south-west from [[Bonython Hall]].]]\nAdelaide is a planned city, designed by the first surveyor-general of South Australia, Colonel [[William Light]]. His plan, now known as \'\'\'Light\'s Vision\'\'\', arranged Adelaide in a grid, with [[:Category:Squares in Adelaide|five squares]] in the [[Adelaide city centre]] and a ring of parks, known as the [[Adelaide Parklands]], surrounding it. Light\'s selection of the location for the city was initially unpopular with the early settlers, as well as South Australia\'s first governor, John Hindmarsh, due to its distance from the harbour at Port Adelaide, and the lack of fresh water there.[Page, M. (1981): \'\'Port Adelaide and its Institute, 1851-1979.\'\' Rigby Publishers Ltd. Pp.17-20. ISBN 0727015109] Light successfully persisted with his choice of location against this initial opposition.\n\nThe benefits of Light\'s design are numerous: Adelaide has had wide multi-lane roads from its beginning, an easily navigable [[cardinal direction]] grid layout and an expansive green ring around the city centre. There are two sets of [[ring road]]s in Adelaide that have resulted from the original design. The [[City Ring Route, Adelaide|inner ring route]] ([[A21 road (Australia)|A21]]) borders the parklands, and the outer route ([[A3 road (South Australia)|A3]]/[[South Road, Adelaide|A13]]/[[A16 highway (Australia)|A16]]/[[A17 highway (Australia)|A17]]) completely bypasses the inner city via (in clockwise order) [[Grand Junction Road]], Hampstead Road, Ascot Avenue, [[Portrush Road]], [[Cross Road, Adelaide|Cross Road]] and [[South Road, Adelaide|South Road]].[[http://www.transport.sa.gov.au/transport_network/projects/better_roads/adelaides_inner_outer_ring_routes.asp \'\'Adelaide\'s Inner and Outer Ring Routes\'\'], 24 August 2004, South Australian Department of Transport. {{wayback|url=http://www.transport.sa.gov.au/transport_network/projects/better_roads/adelaides_inner_outer_ring_routes.asp |date=20140306220115 }}]\n[[File:Torrens River at night.jpg|thumb|Footbridge across the Torrens River, with the [[Adelaide Oval|Adelaide Oval stadium]] in the background.]]\nSuburban expansion has to some extent outgrown Light\'s original plan. Numerous former outlying villages and \"country towns\", as well as the satellite city of [[Elizabeth, South Australia|Elizabeth]], have been enveloped by its [[urban sprawl|suburban sprawl]]. Expanding developments in the Adelaide Hills region led to the construction of the [[South Eastern Freeway]] to cope with growth, which has subsequently led to new developments and further improvements to that transport corridor. Similarly, the booming development in Adelaide\'s [[City of Onkaparinga|South]] led to the construction of the [[Southern Expressway (Australia)|Southern Expressway]].\n\nNew roads are not the only transport infrastructure developed to cope with the urban growth. The [[O-Bahn Busway]] is an example of a unique solution to [[Tea Tree Gully, South Australia|Tea Tree Gully\'s]] transport woes in the 1980s.[{{cite web |title=Adelaide\'s Freeways ? A History from MATS to the Port River Expressway |work=Ozroads |url=http://www.ozroads.com.au/SA/freeways.htm}}] The development of the nearby suburb of [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]] in the late 1980s is an example of well-thought-out urban planning. \n[[File:King William Street-Adelaide.jpg|thumb|right|King William Street, one of the widest main streets in an Australian capital city, viewed from Victoria Square.]]\nIn the 1960s, a [[Metropolitan Adelaide Transport Study]] Plan was proposed in order to cater for the future growth of the city. The plan involved the construction of freeways, [[Controlled-access highway|expressways]] and the upgrade of certain aspects of the public transport system. The then premier [[Steele Hall]] approved many parts of the plan and the government went as far as purchasing land for the project. The later [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] government elected under [[Don Dunstan]] shelved the plan, but allowed the purchased land to remain vacant, should the future need for freeways arise. In 1980, the [[Liberal party of Australia|Liberal party]] won government and premier [[David Tonkin]] committed his government to selling off the land acquired for the MATS plan, ensuring that even when needs changed, the construction of most MATS-proposed freeways would be impractical. Some parts of this land have been used for transport, (e.g. the O-Bahn Busway and Southern Expressway), while most has been progressively subdivided for residential use.\n\nIn 2008, the [[Government of South Australia|SA Government]] announced plans for a network of [[transport-oriented development]]s across the Adelaide metropolitan area and purchased a [[Clipsal site development|10 hectare industrial site]] at [[Bowden, South Australia|Bowden]] for $52.5 million as the first of these developments.[[http://web.archive.org/web/20081206075528/http://www.ministers.sa.gov.au/news.php?id=3826 \"Clipsal site at Bowden to become a green village\"], Ministerial Press Release, 24 October 2008, SA Govt. Retrieved 20 November 2008.][[http://web.archive.org/web/20090709153202/http://www.lmc.sa.gov.au/_inc/track_download.asp?did=339 \"Government reveals Clipsal site purchase price\"], Ministerial Press Release, 15 November 2008, SA Govt. Retrieved 14 August 2012.] The site covers 102,478 square metres, or about 10 hectares, and is bounded by Park Terrace to the south, the Adelaide to Outer Harbour railway line to the west, Drayton Street to the north and Sixth and Seventh Streets to the east.\n\n====Housing====\n{{Main|Australian residential architectural styles}}\nHistorically, Adelaide\'s suburban residential areas have been characterised by single-storey detached houses built on {{convert|1/4|acre|m2|adj=on|disp=flip}} blocks. A relative lack of suitable locally available timber for construction purposes led to the early development of a brick-making industry, as well as the use of stone, for houses and other buildings. By 1891 68% of houses were built of stone, 15% of timber, and 10% of brick, with brick also being widely used in stone houses for quoins, door and window surrounds, and chimneys and fireplaces.[Gibbs, R.M. (2013): \'\'Under the burning sun: a history of colonial South Australia, 1836-1900\'\'. Peacock Publications. Pp. 58, 333-4. ISBN 978-1921601-85-9]\n\n[[File:Adelaide-NthTce-EastEnd-TerraceHouses-Aug08.jpg|thumb|right|A row of [[terrace houses]] at the east end of North Terrace.]]\nThere is a wide variety in the styles of these predominately brick, and to a lesser degree, stone, and/or stone-faced, single-storey detached houses. After both of the World Wars, the use of red bricks was popular. In the 1960s, cream bricks became popular, and in the 1970s, deep red and brown bricks became popular. {{Citation needed|date=December 2015}} Until the 1970s, roofs tended to be clad with corrugated iron or clay tiles (usually red clay). Since then, cement tiles and colourbond corrugated (and other types of) iron have also become popular. Most roofs are pitched; flat roofs are not common. Up to the 1970s, the majority of houses were of \"double brick\" construction upon \"dwarf wall\" foundations.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} Progressively since then there has been a move to \"[[brick veneer]]\" over a timber frame on a concrete slab foundation, and more recently, over a steel frame. In addition to this, a significant factor in Adelaide\'s suburban history is the role of the [[South Australian Housing Trust]].\n\nIn the 1960s and 1970s, many of the older houses were demolished and replaced by \"home units\" ? a group of three-to-five single-storey dwellings on a common title with shared access.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} Two-storey blocks of flats were also common in this period. [[Dutch Colonial]] architecture is rare in Adelaide, but there are a few noteworthy examples in the style popularised in the United States, in the 1960s. The style was brought to South Australia by George Gavin Lawson. {{Citation needed|date=December 2015}} In the 21st century, a significant factor is the government policy of \"Urban infill\", where single-storey detached houses are being demolished, the land subdivided, and double-storey semi-detached \"town-houses\" are being built in their place.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}\n\n===Climate===\n{{Main|Climate of Adelaide}}\nAdelaide has a hot-summer [[Mediterranean climate]] ([[K?ppen climate classification]] \'\'Csa\'\'),[{{cite book |last=Tapper |first=Andrew |last2=Tapper |first2=Nigel |title=The weather and climate of Australia and New Zealand |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Melbourne, Australia |isbn=0-19-553393-3|edition=First |editor=Gray, Kathleen |page=300}}] with hot dry summers and mild winters, with most [[precipitation]] falling in the winter months. Adelaide receives enough annual precipitation to avoid [[K?ppen]]\'s BSh (semi-arid climate) classification. Rainfall is unreliable, light and infrequent throughout summer. In contrast, the winter has fairly reliable rainfall with June being the wettest month of the year, averaging around 80 mm. [[Frosts]] are occasional, with the most notable occurrences in July 1908 and July 1982. Hail is also common in winter. Adelaide is a windy city– it experiences [[wind chill]] in winter, which makes the temperature [[apparent temperature|seem colder than it actually is]]. Snowfall in the metropolitan area is extremely uncommon, except for very light and sporadic falls in the hills and at [[Mount Lofty]]–with the most recent occurrence being on 11 July 2015. Dewpoints in the summer typically range from {{convert|8|?C|?F}} to {{convert|10|?C|?F}}. \n{{Adelaide weatherbox}}\n\n==Governance==\n{{Main|Government of South Australia}}\n{| class=\"toccolours\" cellpadding=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"float:right; margin-right:.5em; margin-top:.4em; margin-left:0.5em; font-size:90%;\"\n|-\n! colspan=\"3\" style=\"background:#cef; text-align:center;\"| Composition of the [[Parliament of South Australia]]\n|- style=\"background:#ccc; vertical-align:top;\"\n![[List of political parties in Australia|Party]]\n![[South Australian House of Assembly|House]]\n![[South Australian Legislative Council|Council]]\n|-\n| style=\"text-align:center; background:#f66;\"|[[Australian Labor Party (South Australian Branch)|Labor]]\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|24\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|8\n|-\n| style=\"text-align:center; background:#00bfff;\"|[[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]]\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|21\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|8\n|-\n| style=\"text-align:center; background:#10c25b;\"|[[Greens South Australia|Green]]\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|0\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|2\n|-\n| style=\"text-align:center; background:#598dbc;\"|[[Family First Party|Family First]]\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|0\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|2\n|-\n| style=\"text-align:center; background:#9965cc;\"|[[Dignity for Disability]]\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|0\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|1\n|-\n| style=\"text-align:center; background:silver;\"|[[Independent (politician)|Independent]]\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|2\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|1\n|-\n| style=\"text-align:center; background:white;\"|\'\'\'Total\'\'\'\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|\'\'\'47\'\'\'\n| style=\"text-align:center;\"|\'\'\'22\'\'\'\n|-\n| colspan=\"3\" style=\"font-size:80%; background:#cef; text-align:center;\"| Source: Electoral Commission SA\n|}\n[[File:OIC sa parliament 2.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Parliament House, Adelaide]]]]\nAdelaide, as the capital of South Australia, is the seat of the [[Government of South Australia]]. As Adelaide is South Australia\'s capital and most populous city, the State Government co-operates extensively with the [[City of Adelaide]]. In 2006, the Ministry for the City of Adelaide was created to facilitate the state government\'s collaboration with the Adelaide City Council and the Lord Mayor to improve Adelaide\'s image. The state parliament\'s Capital City Committee[{{cite web |url=http://www.capcity.adelaide.sa.gov.au |title=Capital City Committee |date = October 2008 |publisher=Government of South Australia and Adelaide City Council |accessdate=20 June 2009 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618221636/http://www.capcity.adelaide.sa.gov.au/ | archivedate= 18 June 2009 | deadurl=no}}] is also involved in the governance of the City of Adelaide, being primarily concerned with the planning of Adelaide\'s urban development and growth.\n\n==Local governments==\n{{Further|Local Government areas of South Australia}}\nThe Adelaide metropolitan area is divided between eighteen [[Local Government Areas of South Australia|local government areas]], including, at its centre, the [[City of Adelaide]], which administers the [[Adelaide city centre]], [[North Adelaide]], and the surrounding [[Adelaide Parklands]]. It is the oldest municipal authority in Australia and was established in 1840, when Adelaide and Australia\'s first mayor, [[James Hurtle Fisher]], was elected. From 1919 onwards, the City has had a [[List of Mayors and Lord Mayors of Adelaide|Lord Mayor]], the current being Lord Mayor [[Martin Haese]].[[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-11-09/businessman-martin-haese-elected-as-new-lord-mayor-of-adelaide/5877462?section=sa Businessman Martin Haese elected as Lord Mayor of Adelaide, ousting Stephen Yarwood] ABC News, 10 November 2014. Accessed 10 November 2014.]\n\n==Demography==\n[[File:Adelaide CoB dots.png|left|thumb|upright=0.7|Each dot represents 100 persons born in:\n{|\n|- valign=top\n|{{legend|blue|UK|size=50%}}{{legend|cyan|Greece|size=50%}}{{legend|red|China|size=50%}}{{legend|lightgreen|Italy|size=50%}}\n|{{legend|orange|Germany|size=50%}}{{legend|darkviolet|Lebanon|size=50%}}{{legend|yellow|Vietnam|size=50%}}\n|}(Based on 2006 Census data)]]\n\nAt the 2011 census, Adelaide had a metropolitan population of more than 1,225,235,[[http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2011/quickstat/4GADE?opendocument&navpos=220 2011 Census QuickStats > Greater Adelaide] Australian Bureau of Statistics, 28 March 2013. Retrieved 15 August 2013.] making it Australia\'s fifth largest city. In the 2002?03 period the population grew by 0.6%, while the national average was 1.2%. Some 76.7%{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} of the population of South Australia are residents of the Adelaide metropolitan area, making South Australia one of the most centralised states.\n\nMajor areas of population growth in recent years have been in outer suburbs such as [[Mawson Lakes, South Australia|Mawson Lakes]] and Golden Grove. Adelaide\'s inhabitants occupy 366,912 houses, 57,695 semi-detached, row terrace or town houses and 49,413 flats, units or apartments.[{{cite web |url=http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=1455 |title=Religion: Diversity |accessdate=15 November 2013 }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=1466 |title=Religious freedom |accessdate=15 November 2013 }}]\nHowever, approximately 28% of the population expressed no religious affiliation in the 2011 Census, compared with the national average of 22.3%, making Adelaide one of the least religious cities in Australia.\nOver half of the population of Adelaide identifies as Christian, with the largest denominations being [[Roman Catholic Church in Australia|Catholic]] (21.3%), [[Anglican Church of Australia|Anglican]] (12.6%), [[Uniting Church in Australia|Uniting Church]] (7.6%) and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] (3.5%).[{{cite web|url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2011/quickstat/4GADE?opendocument&navpos=220|title=2011 Census ? Greater Adelaide|publisher=}}]\n [[File:Adelaide Mosque 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The [[Central Adelaide Mosque]] in Little Gilbert Street (1888-89)]]\nThe [[Jews|Jewish]] community of the city dates back to 1840. Eight years later, 58 Jews lived in the city.[[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0001_0_00409.html Adelaide], Jewish Virtual Library, Encyclopaedia Judica, 2008.] The Jewish [[synagogue]] was built in 1871, when 435 Jews lived in the city. Many Jews took part in the city councils, such as Judah Moss Solomon (1852?66) and others after him. Three Jews have been elected to the position of city mayor.[[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/793-adelaide Adelaide], JewishEncyclopedia.com, 1906.] In the 1960s, the Jewish population of Adelaide numbered about 1,200; in 2001, according to the Australian census, 979 persons declared themselves to be Jewish by religion.[ In 2011, over 1,000 Jews were living in the city, operating an [[Orthodox Judaism|orthodox]] and a [[Reform Judaism|reform]] school, in addition to a virtual Jewish museum.][[http://adelaidejmuseum.org/ Adelaide Jewish Museum]]\n\nThe \"[[Afghan (Australia)|Afghan]]\" community in Australia first became established in the 1860s when camels and their Pathan, Punjabi, Baluchi and Sindhi handlers began to be used to open up settlement in the arid interior of the continent.[{{cite book |last1=Westrip |first1=J. |last2=Holroyde |first2=P. |year=2010 |title=Colonial Cousins: a surprising history of connections between India and Australia |work=[[Wakefield Press]] |location=Kent Town, South Australia |isbn=978-1-86254-841-1 |ol=24582860M}}] Until eventually superseded by the advent of the railways and later, motor vehicles, they played an invaluable economic and social role in transporting heavy loads of goods to, and products from, isolated settlements and mines. This role is acknowledged by the name of [[The Ghan]], the passenger train operating between Adelaide, Alice Springs, and Darwin. The [[Central Adelaide Mosque]] is regarded as the oldest permanent mosque in Australia; however an earlier [[Marree Mosque|mosque at Marree]] in northern South Australia, dating from 1861?62 and subsequently abandoned or demolished, has now been rebuilt.\n\n==Economy==\n[[File:Flindersmed.jpg|thumb|tumb|right|[[Flinders Medical Centre]]. Health care and social assistance is the largest [[Australian bureau of statistics|ABS]] defined employment sector in South Australia.[{{cite web|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/BDE38EF07F5984D0CA2576F50011FE7D?OpenDocument|title=1345.4 ? SA Stats, June 2011|publisher=}}]]]\n[[File:US Navy 040823-N-3019M-003 The Australian Collins-class submarine, HMAS Rankin (SSK 78), enters Pearl Harbor for a port visit after completing exercises in the Pacific region.jpg|thumb|The Adelaide-built {{sclass-|Collins|submarine}} {{HMAS|Rankin|SSG 78|6}} entering [[Pearl Harbor]], August 2004.]]\n\nSouth Australia\'s largest employment sector is health care and social assistance,[{{cite web|url=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/business/health-now-our-biggest-employer/story-e6frede3-1226046526798|title=Health now our biggest employer ? Adelaide Now|publisher=}}] surpassing manufacturing in SA as the largest employer since 2006?07.[[http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/1345.4Feature%20Article1Apr%202011?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1345.4&issue=Apr%202011&num=&view= 1345.4 ? SA Stats, Apr 2011]. Abs.gov.au. Retrieved on 26 July 2013.]\n\nThe retail trade is the second largest employer in SA (2009?10), with 91,900 jobs, and 12 per cent of the state workforce.[{{Wayback|df=yes|url=http://www.southaustralia.biz/fact_sheets/fact_automotive.biz.pdf|date =20110726013520}}{{Dead link|date=November 2011}}]\n\nThe [[State Bank of South Australia|collapse of the State Bank in 1992]] resulted in large levels of state public debt (as much as A$4 billion). The collapse meant that successive governments enacted lean budgets, cutting spending, which was a setback to the further economic development of the city and state. The debt has more recently been reduced with the State Government once again receiving a AAA+ Credit Rating.[[http://www.southaustralia.biz/news/sa_creditrating.htm ] {{wayback|url=http://www.southaustralia.biz/news/sa_creditrating.htm |date=20120115021213 }}]\n\nThe global media conglomerate [[News Corporation]] was founded in, and until 2004 incorporated in, Adelaide and it is still considered its \'spiritual\' home by [[Rupert Murdoch]]. Australia\'s largest oil company, [[Santos (company)|Santos]], prominent South Australian brewery, [[Coopers Brewery|Coopers]], and national retailer [[Harris Scarfe]] also call Adelaide their home.\n\n===Defence industry===\nAdelaide is home to a large proportion of Australia\'s defence industries, which contribute over A$1 billion to South Australia\'s Gross State Product.[[http://indaily.com.au/news/2013/08/28/defence-interactive/ Visualised: How Defence dominates govt tenders in SA] \'\'InDaily\'\', 28 August 2013. Retrieved 11 January 2016.] The principal government military research institution, the [[Defence Science and Technology Organisation]], and other defence technology organisations such as [[BAE Systems Australia]] and Lockheed Martin Australia, are north of Salisbury and west of Elizabeth in an area now called \"Edinburgh Parks\", adjacent to [[RAAF Base Edinburgh]].\n\nOthers, such as Saab Systems and Raytheon, are in or near [[Technology Park, Adelaide|Technology Park]]. [[ASC Pty Ltd]], based in the industrial suburb of [[Osborne, South Australia|Osborne]]. South Australia was charged with constructing Australia\'s [[Collins class submarine|\'\'Collins\'\' class submarines]] and more recently the A$6 billion contract to construct the [[Royal Australian Navy]]\'s new [[Hobart class destroyer|air-warfare destroyers]].[[http://www.defencesa.com/ \'\'South Australia: The Defence Industry Choice\'\'], Defence SA.]\n\n===Employment statistics===\nAs of November 2015, Greater Adelaide had an unemployment rate of 7.4% with a youth unemployment rate of 15% [http://www.skills.sa.gov.au/workforce-information/labour-market]\n\nThe median weekly individual income for people aged 15 years and over was $447 per week in 2006, compared with $466 nationally. The median family income was $1,137 per week, compared with $1,171 nationally.[{{Census 2006 AUS|id=405|name=Adelaide (Statistical Division)|quick=on|accessdate=28 February 2008}}] Adelaide\'s housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other Australian cities, with housing being notably cheaper. The median Adelaide house price is half that of Sydney and two-thirds that of Melbourne. The three-month trend unemployment rate to March 2007 was 6.2%.[[http://www.workplace.gov.au/lmip/LabourForceData/SouthAustralia/Adelaide/ \'\'Adelaide\'\'], Labour Market Information Portal.] The Northern suburbs\' unemployment rate is disproportionately higher than the other regions of Adelaide at 8.3%, while the East and South are lower than the Adelaide average at 4.9% and 5.0% respectively.[[http://www.workplace.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/1E5ADA69-1DF0-4680-A16A-F376109E9091/0/SA_6_Regions_2007_04.pdf \'\'SA Regional Labour Force Data\'\'], April 2007, Australian Bureau of Statistics Labour Force Survey.]\n\n===House prices===\nOver the decade March 2001 ? March 2010, Metropolitan Adelaide median house prices approximately tripled. (approx. 285% ? approx. 11%p.a. compounding)\nIn the 5 years March 2007 ? March 2012, prices increased by approx. 27% ? approx. 5%p.a. compounding.[http://wic003lc.server-web.com/~admin417/uploads/Stats/Stats%20Mar10.pdf {{wayback|url=http://wic003lc.server-web.com/~admin417/uploads/Stats/Stats%20Mar10.pdf |date=20120301080914 }}][http://www.reisa.com.au/documents/item/58][http://www.reisa.com.au/documents/item/54]\n\nIn summary:\n{| class=\"wikitable\"\n|- align=right\n| March || 2001 || 2002 || 2003 || 2004 || 2005 || 2006 || 2007 || 2008 || 2009 || 2010\n| 2011 || 2012\n|- align=right\n| Median || 140,000 || 170,000 || 200,000 || 250,000 || 270,000 || 280,000 || 300,000 || 360,000 || 350,000 || 400,000\n| 400,000 || 380,000\n|- align=right\n|% change || || 21% || 18% || 25% || 8% || 4% || 7% || 20% || ?3% || 14%\n| 0% || ?5%\n|}\n\'\'All numbers approximate and rounded. Since March 2012, the REISA[Real Estate Institute of South Australia (REISA)] no longer release a median house price for the Adelaide Metropolitan area.\'\'\n\nEach quarter, [[The Alternative and Direct Investment Securities Association]] (ADISA) publishes a list of median house sale prices by suburb and [[Local government in Australia|Local Government Area]].{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} (Previously, this was done by REISA[) Due to the small size of many of Adelaide\'s suburbs, the low volumes of sales in these suburbs, and (over time) the huge variations in the numbers of sales in a suburb in a quarter, statistical analysis of \"the most expensive suburb\" is unreliable; the suburbs appearing in the \"top 10 most expensive suburbs this quarter\" list is constantly varying. Quarterly Reports for the last two years can be found on the REISA website.][{{cite web|url=http://www.reisa.com.au/publicinfo/median-house-prices|title=Public Information ? REISA|publisher=}}]\n\n\n==Education and research==\n{{Main|South Australia#Education|l1=Education in South Australia}}\n[[File:UofAdelaide-BarrSmithLibrary-Aug08.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Barr Smith Library]], part of the [[University of Adelaide]].]]\n\nEducation forms an increasingly important part of the city\'s economy, with the South Australian Government and educational institutions attempting to position Adelaide as \"Australia\'s education hub\" and marketing it as a \"Learning City.\"[{{cite news |first=Verity |last=Edwards |title=Education attracts record numbers |work=The Weekend Australian |date=3 May 2008 }}] The number of international students studying in Adelaide has increased rapidly in recent years to 30,726 in 2015, of which 1,824 were secondary school students.[{{cite news |first=Amelia |last=Broadstock|title=International Uni student numbers a billion dollar boom for Adelaide |work=The City Messenger |date=6 May 2015 }}] In addition to the city\'s existing institutions, foreign institutions have been attracted to set up campuses in order to increase its attractiveness as an education hub.[{{cite news |first=Lucy |last=Hodges |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/higher/brave-new-territory-university-college-london-to-open-a-branch-in-australia-835571.html |title=Brave new territory: University College London to open a branch in Australia |work=The Independent (UK) |date=29 May 2008 }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.heinz.cmu.edu.au/about-heinz-australia/index.aspx |title=About Heinz Australia: Carnegie Mellon Heinz College |publisher=Carnegie Mellon University}}]\n\n===Primary and secondary education===\nAt the level of primary and secondary education, there are two systems of school education. There is a public system operated by the South Australian Government and a private system of independent and [[Catholic school]]s. All schools provide education under the [[South Australian Certificate of Education]] (SACE) or, to a lesser extent, the [[International Baccalaureate]] (IB), with Adelaide having the highest number of IB schools in Australia. {{Citation needed|date=January 2016}}\n\n===Tertiary education===\n[[File:Carnegie Mellon University (5266180152).jpg|thumb|left|The historic Torrens Building in [[Victoria Square, Adelaide|Victoria Square]] houses campuses of several international universities operating in South Australia]]\n\nThere are three public universities local to Adelaide, as well as one private university and three constituent colleges of foreign universities. The [[Flinders University of South Australia]], the [[University of Adelaide]], the [[University of South Australia]] and [[Torrens University Australia]] – part of the [[Laureate International Universities]] are based in Adelaide. The University of Adelaide was ranked in the top 150 universities worldwide. Flinders ranked in the top 250 and Uni SA in the top 300. Torrens University Australia is part of an international network of over 70 higher education institutions in more than 30 countries worldwide. The historic Torrens Building in [[Victoria Square, Adelaide|Victoria Square]][The historic Torrens Building in Victoria Square was beautifully restored at (considerable) taxpayer expense not long before SA Premier [[Mike Rann]] announced that it would be used as the core of Adelaide\'s international university precinct.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}] houses [[Carnegie Mellon University]]\'s [[Heinz College Australia]], [[Cranfield University]]\'s [[Defence College of Management and Technology]], and [[University College London]]\'s School of Energy and Resources (Australia), and constitute the city\'s international university precinct.[{{cite web|url=http://www.goingtouni.gov.au/Main/CoursesAndProviders/ProvidersAndCourses/HigherEducationProviders/SA/CarnegieMellonUniversity.htm |work=GoingToUni.gov.au |publisher=Government of South Australia |title=Carnegie Mellon University |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20111123015458/http://www.goingtouni.gov.au:80/Main/CoursesAndProviders/ProvidersAndCourses/HigherEducationProviders/SA/CarnegieMellonUniversity.htm |archivedate=23 November 2011 }}]\n\nThe [[University of Adelaide]], with 25,000 students,[{{cite web |url=http://www.adelaide.edu.au/uni/facts/ |title=Facts & Figures |publisher=University of Adelaide |accessdate=1 June 2012 | archivedate= 1 June 2012 | deadurl=no}}{{dead link|date=March 2015}}] is Australia\'s third-oldest university and a member of the leading \"[[Group of Eight (Australian universities)|Group of Eight]]\". It has five campuses throughout the state, including two in the city-centre, and a campus in Singapore. The [[University of South Australia]], with 37,000 students,[{{cite web |url=http://w3.unisa.edu.au/news/facts.asp |title=Facts about UniSA |publisher=University of South Australia |accessdate=1 June 2012 |archiveurl=http://w3.unisa.edu.au/news/facts.asp |archivedate = 1 July 2012}}] has two North Terrace campuses, three other campuses in the metropolitan area and campuses at [[Whyalla, South Australia|Whyalla]] and [[Mount Gambier, South Australia|Mount Gambier]]. The [[Flinders University of South Australia]], with 21,809 students,[{{cite web |url=http://www.flinders.edu.au/about/our-university/our-facts-and-figures.cfm |title=Our facts and figures |publisher=Flinders University |accessdate=1 June 2012 | archiveurl=http://www.flinders.edu.au/about/our-university/our-facts-and-figures.cfm| archivedate= 1 July 2012 | deadurl=no}}] is in the southern suburb of [[Bedford Park, South Australia|Bedford Park]], alongside the [[Flinders Medical Centre]], and maintains a small city campus in Victoria Square.\n\nThere are several South Australian [[TAFE South Australia|TAFE]] (Technical and Further Education) campuses in the metropolitan area which provide a range of vocational education and training. The Adelaide College of the Arts, as a school of TAFE SA, provides nationally recognised training in visual and performing arts.\n\n===Research===\nIn addition to the universities, Adelaide is home to a number of research institutes, including the [[Royal Institution of Australia]], established in 2009 as a counterpart to the two-hundred-year-old [[Royal Institution|Royal Institution of Great Britain]].[{{cite news |first=Verity |last=Edwards |title=RI Australia plugs into world science |work=The Weekend Australian |date=3 May 2008 }}] Many of the organisations involved in research tend to be geographically clustered throughout the Adelaide metropolitan area:\n\n* The east end of [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]]: [[Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science|IMVS]];[[http://www.imvs.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/SA+Pathology+Internet+Content/IMVS/About+Us/History/ History], [http://www.imvs.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/SA+Pathology+Internet+Content/IMVS/About+Us/Our+Research/ Our research], Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science] Hanson Institute;[[http://www.hansoninstitute.sa.gov.au/ About us], [http://www.hansoninstitute.sa.gov.au/aboutus/history.php History], Hanson Institute {{wayback|url=http://www.hansoninstitute.sa.gov.au/ |date=20080725031302 }}] [[Royal Adelaide Hospital|RAH]]; [[National Wine Centre of Australia|National Wine Centre]].\n* The west end of North Terrace: [[South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute]] (SAHMRI), located next to the new [[Royal Adelaide Hospital]].\n* The [[Waite Research Precinct]]: [[South Australian Research and Development Institute|SARDI]] Head Office and Plant Research Centre; [[Australian Wine Research Institute|AWRI]];[[http://www.awri.com.au/ The Australian Wine Research Institute (AWRI)], awri.com.au] [[Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics|ACPFG]];[[http://www.acpfg.com.au/ Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics (ACPFG)], acpfg.com.au] [[CSIRO]] research laboratories.[[http://www.csiro.au/places/Waite-Precinct.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.csiro.au/places/Waite-Precinct.html |date=20111010193353 }}] SARDI also have establishments at [[Glenside, South Australia|Glenside]][{{cite web|url=http://www.sardi.sa.gov.au/about_us_2/facilities/glenside_laboratories|title=Livestock ? Glenside Laboratories|author=author|publisher=}}] and [[West Beach, South Australia|West Beach]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.sardi.sa.gov.au/about_us_2/facilities/sa_aquatic_sciences_centre/sa_aquatic_sciences_centre|title=SARDI|author=author|publisher=}}]\n* [[Edinburgh, South Australia]]: [[Defence Science and Technology Organisation|DSTO]]; [[BAE Systems]] (Australia); [[Lockheed Martin]] Australia Electronic Systems.\n* [[Technology Park Adelaide|Technology Park]] ([[Mawson Lakes, South Australia|Mawson Lakes]]): BAE Systems; [[Optus]]; [[Raytheon]]; [[Topcon]]; Lockheed Martin Australia Electronic Systems.\n* Research Park at [[Thebarton, South Australia|Thebarton]]: businesses involved in materials engineering, biotechnology, environmental services, information technology, industrial design, laser/optics technology, health products, engineering services, radar systems, telecommunications and petroleum services.\n* Science Park (adjacent to Flinders University): Playford Capital.\n* The [[Basil Hetzel]] Institute for Translational Health Research[http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/a-great-of-the-sa-science-world/story-e6frea83-1226366172413] in [[Woodville, South Australia|Woodville]] the research arm of the [[Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Adelaide]]\n\n\nFile:Bonython Hall.jpg|The Mitchell Building and Bonython Hall, [[University of Adelaide]].\nFile:Hawke Building, UniSA.jpg|The Hawke Building, part of the [[University of South Australia|UniSA]], City West Campus.\nFile:Flinders_from_hill_3.jpg|[[Flinders University]] buildings from the campus hills.\nFile:Torrens_Building,_Victoria_Square.jpg|Torrens University.\nFile:SAHMRI.jpg|SAHMRI.\n\n\n==Cultural==\n[[File:AGSAfront.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Art Gallery of South Australia]], and part of the [[South Australian Museum]] on North Terrace.]]\nWhile established as a British province, and very much English in terms of its culture, Adelaide attracted immigrants from other parts of Europe early on, including German and other European non-conformists escaping religious persecution. The first German Lutherans arrived in 1838 bringing with them the [[vine cuttings]] that they used to found the acclaimed wineries of the [[Barossa Valley]].\n\nAfter the Second World War, British, Italian, [[Greek people|Greek]], [[Dutch people|Dutch]], [[Polish people|Polish]] and other European immigrants settled in Adelaide.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} The conclusion of the [[Vietnam War]] in 1975 saw an influx of Indo-Chinese immigrants to Adelaide.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} \'\'See: [[Immigration history of Australia]]\'\'\n\n===Arts and entertainment===\nAdelaide\'s arts scene flourished in the 1960s and 1970s with the support of successive premiers from both major political parties. The renowned [[Adelaide Festival of Arts]] and [[Adelaide Fringe Festival|Fringe Festival]] were established in 1960 under Thomas Playford. Construction of the [[Adelaide Festival Centre]] began under Steele Hall in 1970 and was completed under the subsequent government of Don Dunstan, who also established the [[South Australian Film Corporation]] and, in 1976, the [[State Opera of South Australia]].\n\nOver time, the Adelaide Festival has expanded to include the [[Adelaide Cabaret Festival]], [[Adelaide Film Festival]], [[Adelaide Festival of Ideas]], [[Adelaide Writers\' Week]], and [[WOMADelaide]], all held predominately in the autumnal month of March (sometimes jocularly called \'mad March\' by locals due to the hectic clustering of these events). Other festivals include [[Feast Festival|FEAST]] (a [[LGBT culture|queer culture]] celebration), [[Tasting Australia]] (a biennial food and wine affair), and the [[Royal Adelaide Show]] (an annual [[agricultural show]] and [[state fair]]).\n[[File:Adelaide Convention Centre at night.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Adelaide Convention Centre]], the first of its kind in South Australia, is situated on the River Torrens. Photo taken in 2007]]\nThere are many international cultural fairs, most notably the German [[Sch?tzenfest]] and Greek [[Glendi]]. Adelaide is home to the [[Adelaide Christmas Pageant]], the world\'s largest [[Santa Claus parade|Christmas parade]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} As the state capital, Adelaide is home to a great number of cultural institutions with many along the boulevard of [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]]. The [[Art Gallery of South Australia]], with around 35,000 works, holds Australia\'s second largest state-based collection. Adjacent are the [[South Australian Museum]] and [[State Library of South Australia]], while the [[Adelaide Botanic Garden]], [[National Wine Centre]] and [[Tandanya National Aboriginal Cultural Institute]] are nearby in the [[East End, Adelaide|East End]] of the city. In the back of the State Library lies the [[Migration Museum, Adelaide|Migration Museum]], Australia\'s oldest museum of its kind. Contemporary art scenes include the [[Contemporary Art Centre of South Australia]]. [[Adelaide Festival Centre]], on the banks of the Torrens, is the focal point for much of the cultural activity in the city and home to the [[State Theatre Company of South Australia]], with other venues including the [[Adelaide Entertainment Centre]] and the city\'s many smaller theatres, pubs and cabaret bars.\n[[File:AdelaidaParlamento.JPG|thumb|upright=1.0|right|The Adelaide Town Hall]]\nThe [[music of Adelaide]] has produced musical groups and individuals who have achieved national and international fame. This includes the [[Adelaide Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Adelaide Youth Orchestra]], rock bands [[The Angels (Australian band)|The Angels]], [[Cold Chisel]], [[The Superjesus]], [[Wolf & Cub]], roots/blues group [[The Audreys]], internationally acclaimed metal acts [[I Killed The Prom Queen]] and [[Double Dragon (band)|Double Dragon]], popular Australian hip-hop outfit [[Hilltop Hoods]], pop acts like [[Sia Furler|Sia]], [[Orianthi]], [[Guy Sebastian]], and [[Wes Carr]], as well as internationally successful tribute act, The [[Australian Pink Floyd Show]].\n\nNoted rocker [[Jimmy Barnes]] spent most of his youth in the northern suburb of [[Elizabeth, South Australia|Elizabeth]]. Paul Kelly grew up in Adelaide and was head prefect at Rostrevor College. The first \'\'[[Australian Idol]]\'\' winner, [[Guy Sebastian]], hails from the north-eastern suburb of [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]]. American musician [[Ben Folds]] used to base himself in Adelaide when he was married to Australian Frally Hynes. Folds recorded a song about Adelaide before he moved away. In addition to its own WOMADelaide, Adelaide attracts several touring music festivals, including [[Big Day Out]], [[Creamfields Australia|Creamfields]], [[Future Music Festival|Future Music]], [[St Jerome\'s Laneway Festival|Laneway]], [[Parklife Festival|Parklife]], [[Soundwave (Australian music festival)|Soundwave]], [[Stereosonic]] and [[Summadayze]]\n\nAdelaide plays host to two of Australia\'s leading contemporary dance companies. The [[Australian Dance Theatre]] and [[Leigh Warren & Dancers]] contribute to state festivals and perform nationally and internationally. [[Restless Dance Theatre]] is also based in Adelaide and is nationally recognised for working with disabled and non-disabled dancers to use movement as a means of expression.\n\n====Concert venues====\nAdelaide pop-concert venues (past and present) include [[Adelaide Entertainment Centre]]; [[Adelaide Festival Theatre]]; [[Adelaide Oval]]; [[Apollo Stadium]]; [[Memorial Drive Park]]; [[Thebarton Theatre]]. Other concert and live theatre venues include [[Adelaide Town Hall]]; [[Dunstan Playhouse]]; Her Majesty\'s Theatre.\n\n===Media===\n[[File:Advertiser Building.JPG|right|thumb|[[Keith Murdoch|Sir Keith Murdoch House]], named after the founder of \'\'[[The News (Adelaide)|The News]]\'\', is the headquarters for the publisher of Adelaide\'s daily newspaper, \'\'The Advertiser\'\'.]]\n\n====Newspapers====\nNewspapers in Adelaide are dominated by [[News Corporation]] publications?Adelaide being the birthplace of News Corporation itself. The only South Australian daily newspaper is \'\'[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser]]\'\', published by News Corporation six days a week. The same group publishes a Sunday paper, the \'\'[[Sunday Mail (Adelaide)|Sunday Mail]]\'\'.\n\nThere are eleven suburban community newspapers published weekly, known collectively as the \'\'[[Messenger Newspapers]]\'\', also published by a subsidiary of News Corporation. \'\'[[The Independent Weekly]]\'\' was a small independent newspaper providing an alternative view, but ceased publishing its print edition in November 2010 and now exists as a digital daily newsletter only. \'\'[[The Adelaide Review]]\'\' is a free paper published fortnightly, and other independent magazine-style papers are published, but are not as widely available.\n\n====Television====\nAll of the five Australian national television networks broadcast [[High-definition television|high definition digital]] services in Adelaide. They share three transmission towers on the ridge near the summit of Mount Lofty. Two other transmission sites are located at Grenfell Street and Elizabeth Downs.[{{cite web|title=Digital television reception in Craigmore/Hillbank|url=http://www.archive.dbcde.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/128912/Craigmore-Hillbank_Fact_Sheet_-_Final_-_Web_ready.pdf|publisher=Australian Government|accessdate=29 April 2013}}] The two government-funded stations are run by the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] ([[ABS (TV station)|ABC South Australia]]) and the [[Special Broadcasting Service]] (SBS). The [[Seven Network]] and [[Network Ten]] both own their Adelaide stations ([[SAS-7]] and [[ADS-10]] respectively).\n\nAdelaide\'s [[NWS-9]] is part of the [[Nine Network]]. New digital-only channels available in addition to [[ABC (Australian TV channel)|ABC]], Seven, Nine, Ten and [[SBS (Australian TV channel)|SBS]] include [[One (Australian TV channel)|One]], [[Eleven (TV channel)|Eleven]], [[TVSN]], [[Spree TV]], [[ABC2|ABC2/KIDS]], [[ABC3]], [[ABC News 24]], [[SBS HD]] (SBS broadcast in HD), [[SBS2]], [[Food Network (Australia)|Food Network]], [[National Indigenous Television|NITV]], [[7Two]], [[7mate]], [[TV4ME]], [[Racing.com|RACING.COM]], [[9HD]] (Nine broadcast in HD), [[9Gem]], [[9Go!]], [[9Life]] and [[extra (Australian TV channel)|eXtra]]. Adelaide also has a [[Community television in Australia|community television]] station, [[Channel 44 (Adelaide)|Channel 44]]. The [[Foxtel]] [[pay TV]] service is available as cable television in a few areas, and as satellite television to the entire metropolitan area. It is resold by a number of other brands, mostly telephone companies.\n\nAs part of a nationwide phase-out of [[analogue television]] in Australia, Adelaide\'s analogue television service was shut down on 2 April 2013.[{{cite web|url=http://myswitch.digitalready.gov.au/default.aspx?search=5000|title=mySwitch|publisher=}}]\n\n====Radio====\nThere are twenty radio stations that serve the metropolitan area, as well as four community stations that serve only parts of the metropolitan area. Of the twenty full coverage stations, there are six commercial stations, six community stations, six national stations and two narrowcast stations. A complete list can be found at [[List of radio stations in Australia#Adelaide]].\n{|\n|-\n|Commercial stations include:\n* AM Band: [[Cruise 1323]], [[FIVEaa|FIVEaa 1395]]\n* FM Band: [[Nova 91.9]], [[Mix 102.3]], [[Triple M|Triple M 104.7]], [[SAFM|SAFM 107.1]]\n| \n|[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] and other non-profit stations include:\n* AM Band: [[Radio National|Radio National 729]], [[891 ABC Adelaide|891 Adelaide (Local Radio)]], [[ABC NewsRadio|NewsRadio 972]]\n* FM Band: [[ABC Classic FM|Classic FM 103.9]], [[Triple J|Triple J 105.5]], [[Fresh FM (Australia)|Fresh FM 92.7]], [[Radio Adelaide|Radio Adelaide 101.5]], [[Three D Radio|Three D Radio 93.7]]\n|}\n\n===Icons===\n{{Main|List of South Australian commercial icons}}\n\n==Sport==\n[[File:Adl utd stadium.jpg|thumb|[[Hindmarsh Stadium]] hosts [[Adelaide United]].]]\nThe main sports played professionally in Adelaide are [[Australian rules football]], [[association football|association football (soccer)]], [[cricket]], [[netball]], and [[basketball]]. Adelaide is the home of two [[Australian Football League]] teams: the [[Adelaide Crows]] and the [[Port Adelaide Football Club]], and one [[A-League]] soccer team, [[Adelaide United]]. A local [[Australian rules football]] league, the [[South Australian National Football League|SANFL]], is made up of ten teams from around Adelaide. The SANFL has been in operation since 1877 when it began as the South Australian Football Association (SAFL) before changing its name to the SANFL in 1927. The SANFL is the oldest surviving football league of any code played in Australia.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}\nAdelaide has developed a strong culture of attracting crowds to major sporting events.[{{cite web|url=http://www.theroar.com.au/2010/01/17/australian-sport-owes-much-to-little-old-adelaide/|title=Australian sport owes much to little old Adelaide|publisher=}}] Until the completion of the 2012?14 renovation and upgrade of the [[Adelaide Oval]], most large sporting events took place at either [[AAMI Stadium]] (the then home base of the [[Adelaide Crows]], and the then [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide\'s]] home game venue), or the historic [[Adelaide Oval]], home of the [[Southern Redbacks]] and the [[Adelaide Strikers]] cricket teams. Since completion of the upgrade, home games for Adelaide Crows & Port Adelaide now take place at Adelaide Oval.\n[[File:Adelaide Oval, 2014.jpg|thumb|left|[[Adelaide Oval]] is the home of [[Australian rules football]] and [[Cricket]] in [[South Australia]].]]\nSince 1884, [[Adelaide Oval]] has also hosted an international cricket test every summer, along with a number of [[One Day International]] cricket matches. [[Memorial Drive Park]], adjacent to the Adelaide Oval, used to host Davis Cup and other major tennis events, including (until 2009) the Adelaide International (now known as the [[Brisbane International]]). Adelaide\'s professional association football team, [[Adelaide United]], play in the A-League. Founded in 2003, their home ground is [[Hindmarsh Stadium]], which has a capacity of 17,000 and is one of the few [[Soccer-specific stadium|purpose-built soccer stadia]] in Australia.\n\nFor two years, 1997 and 1998, Adelaide was represented in Australia\'s top level [[rugby league]], after the [[New South Wales Rugby League]] had played a single game per season at the Adelaide Oval for five years starting in 1991. {{Citation needed|date=November 2015}} The [[Adelaide Rams]] were formed and played in the breakaway [[Super League (Australia)|Super League]] (SL) competition in [[1997 Super League (Australia) season|1997]] before moving to the new [[National Rugby League]] in [[1998 NRL season|1998]]. Initially playing at the Adelaide Oval, the club moved to the more suitable Hindmarsh Stadium late in the 1998 season. As part of a peace deal with the [[Australian Rugby League]] to end the [[Super League war]], the club\'s owners [[News Limited]] (who were also owners of the SL) suddenly closed the club only weeks before the start of the [[1999 NRL season|1999 season]].\n\nAdelaide has two professional basketball teams, the men\'s team being the [[Adelaide 36ers]] who play in the [[National Basketball League Australia]] and the women\'s team, the [[Adelaide Lightning]] who play in the [[Women\'s National Basketball League]]. Both teams play their home games at the [[Adelaide Arena]]. Adelaide has a professional [[netball]] team, the [[Adelaide Thunderbirds]], who play in the trans-Tasman netball competition, the [[ANZ Championship]], with home games played at [[ETSA Park]]. The Thunderbirds occasionally play games or finals at the Adelaide Entertainment Centre, while international netball matches are usually played at either the Entertainment Centre or the Adelaide Arena.\n[[File:Tourdownunder2.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Tour Down Under]] is the first event of the [[UCI World Tour]] calendar. ]]\nSince 1999 Adelaide and its surrounding areas has hosted the [[Tour Down Under]] [[Bicycle racing|bicycle race]], organised and directed by Adelaide-based [[Mike Turtur]]. Turtur won an [[Summer Olympics|Olympic]] [[gold medal]] for Australia in the [[Cycling at the 1984 Summer Olympics|4000m Team pursuit]] at the [[1984 Summer Olympics|1984 Los Angeles Olympics]]. The Tour Down Under is the largest cycling event outside Europe and was the first event outside Europe to be granted [[UCI ProTour]] status. Adelaide maintains a franchise in the [[Australian Baseball League]], the [[Adelaide Bite]]. They have been playing since 2009, and their home stadium is [[Norwood Oval|Coopers Stadium]]. Their name stems from the local [[Great Australian Bight]], and from the abundance of local [[Great White Shark]]s. Adelaide also has an Ice Hockey team, [[Adelaide Adrenaline]] in the [[Australian Ice Hockey League]] (AIHL). They were national champions in 2009 and play their games at the [[Ice Arena (Adelaide)|Ice Arena]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.adelaideadrenaline.com.au/|title=adelaideadrenaline.com.au|work=Adelaide Adrenaline 2014}}]\n\nThe [[Australian Grand Prix]] for [[Formula One]] racing was hosted by Adelaide from 1985 to 1995 on the [[Adelaide Street Circuit]] which was laid out in the city\'s eastern parklands.[ The Grand Prix became a source of pride and losing the event to Melbourne in a surprise announcement in mid-1993 left a void that has since been filled with the highly successful [[Adelaide 500|Clipsal 500]] for [[V8 Supercar]] racing, held on a modified version of the same street circuit. The Classic Adelaide, a [[rallying|rally]] of classic sporting vehicles, is also held in the city and its surrounds.\n\nThe [[World Solar Challenge]] race attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities or corporations, although some are fielded by high schools. The race has a 20-year history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987. Adelaide hosted the 2012 World Bowls Championships][{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbowls2012.com/|title=worldbowls2012.com|work=Independent Insurance}}] at Lockleys Bowling Club, becoming the third city in the world to have held the championships twice, having previously hosted the event in 1996.\n\n[[Dirt track racing|Dirt track speedway]] is also popular in Adelaide with three operating speedways. [[Speedway City]], located adjacent to the [[Adelaide International Raceway]] road racing circuit at [[Virginia, South Australia|Virginia]] ({{convert|24|km|0|abbr=on}} north of the city centre) has been in continuous operation since 1979. [[Gillman Speedway]] located in the semi-industrial suburb of [[Gillman, South Australia|Gillman]], has been in operation since 1998 and caters to [[Motorcycle speedway]] (including [[Sidecar speedway|Sidecars]]), while the [[Sidewinders Speedway]] is also a motorcycle speedway dedicated to Under-16 riders and has been in operation since 1978.\n\n==Infrastructure==\n\n===Health===\n[[File:SAHMRI Adelaide SA.jpg|thumb|right|The [[South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute]] (SAHMRI) located on [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]].]]\nAdelaide\'s two largest tertiary hospitals are the [[Royal Adelaide Hospital]] (RAH), a [[teaching hospital]] of the University of Adelaide (705 beds), and the [[Flinders Medical Centre]] (580 beds) in Bedford Park, a teaching hospital of Flinders University. Other major public hospitals in the Adelaide area are the [[Women\'s and Children\'s Hospital, Adelaide|Women\'s and Children\'s Hospital]] (305 beds), on King William Road in North Adelaide; the [[Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Adelaide|Queen Elizabeth Hospital]] (340 beds) in Woodville, the [[Repatriation General Hospital, Daw Park]] (300 beds) in Daw Park, and the [[Lyell McEwin Hospital]] (198 beds) in Elizabeth. These hospitals are all teaching hospitals. Additional RAH campuses which specialise in specific patient services are in the suburbs of Adelaide ? the Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre in [[Northfield, South Australia|Northfield]], and the [[Glenside, South Australia|Glenside]] Campus Mental Health Service. Adelaide also hosts numerous private hospitals in the city centre and suburbs.\n\nIn June 2007 the State Government announced a series of overhauls to the health sector that would see a new hospital constructed on railyards at the west end of the city, to replace the Royal Adelaide Hospital at the east end of the city. The new 800-bed hospital has a cost of A$1.85 billion and was planned to be named the \"Marjorie Jackson-Nelson Hospital\" after the [[Marjorie Jackson|former Governor of South Australia]].[{{Cite news | last = Owen | first = Michael | title =800 beds, helipad and train station: Our \'Marj\' hospital | newspaper=[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser]] | page = 5 | date = 7 June 2007 |url=}}] However, in 2009, at the former governor\'s request, the state government chose to drop this name and instead transfer the Royal Adelaide Hospital name to the proposed facility. Construction started in June 2011 and is expected to be completed in 2016.[{{cite web|url=http://www.sahp.com.au/index.php/faq|title=Frequently Asked Questions ? General|publisher=}}]\n\nIn addition, major upgrades were announced to see the Flinders Medical Centre become the primary centre for health care for the southern suburbs, and the [[Lyell McEwin Hospital]] in Elizabeth become the centre for the northern suburbs. The trio of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, the [[Modbury Hospital]] and the Noarlunga Hospital were to become specialist elective surgery centres. The Repatriation General Hospital was also to expand its range of speciality areas beyond veterans\' health to incorporate stroke, orthopaedic rehabilitation and aged care.[{{cite web|url=http://www.ministers.sa.gov.au/news.php?id=1712 |title=\'News: New $1.7 billion hospital spearheads health reform\' |publisher=Ministers.sa.gov.au |date=6 June 2007 |accessdate=7 September 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20090815004226/http://www.ministers.sa.gov.au:80/news.php?id=1712 |archivedate=15 August 2009 }}] With the \"Global Financial Crisis\" of 2008, it remains to be seen if and how these initiatives will proceed.\n\nThe largest not-for-profit provider of community health care within Adelaide is the [[Royal District Nursing Service (South Australia)]] which provides out of hospital care and hospital avoidance care, which in turn eases pressure on the South Australia public hospital system.\n\n===Transport===\n{{Main|Transport in Adelaide}}\n[[File:TransAdelaideRailwayMap.svg|thumb|upright|A map of Adelaide?s railway and tram network, served by the [[Adelaide Metro]].]]\nBeing centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms a strategic transport hub for east-west and north-south routes. The city itself has a metropolitan-wide public transport system, which is managed by and known as the [[Adelaide Metro]]. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including the [[O-Bahn Busway]], [[Railways in Adelaide|metropolitan railways]] (with diesel and electric lines), and the Adelaide-[[Glenelg Tram]], which was extended as a metropolitan tram in 2010 through the city centre to the inner north-west suburb of [[Hindmarsh, South Australia|Hindmarsh]]. There are further plans to extend the tram to [[Port Adelaide]] and [[Semaphore, South Australia|Semaphore]]. A [[Central Business District|CBD]] tram loop too, is being considered and the latest [[Adelaide Airport]] master plan has also revealed a tram extension to the airport in the near future.[http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/city-loop-in-tram-proposal/story-e6frea6u-1226032608322][{{cite web |url=http://www.adelaideairport.com.au/assets/pdfs/master-planning/Vol2MaterPlanDec2009.pdf |format=PDF |title=Master Plan ? Adelaide Airport |publisher=adelaideairport.com.au}}]\n\nRoad transport in Adelaide has historically been comparatively easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Historically, Adelaide was known as a \"twenty-minute city\", with commuters having been able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, these roads are now often considered inadequate to cope with Adelaide\'s growing road traffic, and often experience traffic congestion.[{{cite web |title=Metro Malcontent ? The Twenty Minute City No More |work=Royal Automobile Association, South Australia |format=PDF |year=2005|url=http://www.raa.net/download.asp?file=documents\\document_677.pdf |accessdate=28 December 2008}} (1.18MB)]\n\nThe Adelaide metropolitan area has one freeway and three expressways. In order of construction, they are:\n*The [[South Eastern Freeway]] (M1), connects the south-east corner of the Adelaide Plain to the Adelaide Hills and beyond to [[Murray Bridge]] and [[Tailem Bend]], where it then continues as National Highway 1 south-east to Melbourne.\n*The [[Southern Expressway (Australia)|Southern Expressway]] (M2), connecting the outer southern suburbs with the inner southern suburbs and the city centre. It duplicates the route of [[South Road]].\n*The [[North-South Motorway]] (M2), is an ongoing major project that will become the major north-south corridor, replacing most of what is now [[South Road, Adelaide|South Road]], connecting the Southern Expressway and the [[Port River Expressway]]. Currently, the motorway runs as an elevated freeway from its junction with the Port River Expressway to Regency Road, in Adelaide\'s inner north-west. Continuation of the motorway is currently under construction at both ends of the motorway, at Darlington and in the \"Torrens to Torrens\" project.\n*The [[Port River Expressway]] (A9), connects Port Adelaide and [[Outer Harbor, South Australia|Outer Harbor]] to Port Wakefield Road at the northern \"entrance\" to the metropolitan area.\n*The [[Northern Expressway|Northern Expressway (Max Fatchen Expressway)]] (M20), is the northern suburbs bypass route connecting the Sturt Highway (National Highway 20) via the [[Gawler bypass road|Gawler Bypass]] to Port Wakefield Road at a point a few kilometres north of the Port River Expressway connection.\n*The [[Northern Connector]] (proposed route M20) is due to start construction in 2016 to connect the North-South Motorway with the Northern Expressway. The road will not be subject to direct tolls, but South Australia will become a testing ground for a \"network fee\" which involves charging trucks based on road use and impact in place of high registration fees.\n\n====Airports====\n[[File:Adelaide Airport, 2008.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Qantas]] plane leaving [[Adelaide Airport]].]]\nThe Adelaide metropolitan area has two commercial Airports, [[Adelaide Airport|Adelaide]] and [[Parafield Airport|Parafield]].\n\nAdelaide Airport, in Adelaide\'s western suburbs, serves in excess of 7 million passengers annually.[{{cite web |url=http://annualreport.adelaideairport.com.au/pdf/AAL%20Annual%20Report%202012.pdf |format=PDF |title=Adelaide Airport Limited Annual Report |publisher=annualreport.adelaideairport.com.au}}]\n\nParafield Airport, Adelaide\'s second airport {{convert|18|km|mi|abbr=off}} north of the city centre, is used for small aircraft, pilot training and recreational aviation purposes. Parafield Airport served as Adelaide\'s main aerodrome until the opening of the Adelaide Airport in February 1955.\n\n===Utilities===\n[[File:Happy Valley Reservoir 20070223.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of [[Happy Valley Reservoir]] in early 2007]]\n\nAdelaide\'s energy requirements were originally met by the [[Adelaide Electric Supply Company]], which was nationalised by the [[Thomas Playford IV|Playford]] government in 1946,[{{cite web |url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/norrie-sir-charles-willoughby-moke-11254 | title = Biography ? Sir Charles Willoughby Moke Norrie | work = Australian Dictionary of Biography | author = P.A. Howell | accessdate =16 June 2012 }}] becoming the [[SA Power Networks|Electricity Trust of South Australia]] (ETSA), now known as SA Power Networks. Despite significant public opposition and the Labor party\'s anti-privatisation stance which left the Liberal party one vote short of the numbers needed to pass the legislation, ETSA was privatised by the [[John Olsen|Olsen]] Government in 1999 by way of a 200-year lease for the distribution network and the outright purchase of ETSA Power by the [[Cheung Kong Holdings]] for $3.5 billion (11 times ETSA\'s annual earnings) after Labor MP [[Trevor Crothers]] resigned from the party and voted with the government.[http://www.electricity-week.com.au/erisk7/article/315187/function.pg-connect][{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-58398249.html|title=South Australia|publisher=}}] The electricity retail market was opened to competition in 2003 and although competition was expected to result in lower retail costs, prices increased by 23.7% in the market\'s first year.[{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-110318191.html|title=Power crisis \'as bad as California\'.|publisher=}}] In 2004 the privatisation was deemed to be a failure with consumers paying 60% more for their power and with the state government estimated to lose $3 billion in power generation net income in the first ten years of privatisation.[{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-115625174.html|title=Privatisation \'will cost state billions\'.|publisher=}}] In 2012, the industry came under scrutiny for allegedly reducing supply by shutting down generators during periods of peak demand to force prices up. Increased media attention also revealed that in 2009 the state government had approved a 46% increase in retail prices to cover expected increases in the costs of generation while generation costs had in fact fallen 35% by 2012.{{citation needed|date=June 2011}} These price increases and large subsides have led to South Australia paying the highest retail price for electricity in the world.[{{cite web |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/renewables-blowout-as-wind-solar-hit-harder-than-tax/story-fn59niix-1226397210436 | title = Renewables blowout as wind, solar hit harder than tax | work=The Australian | author1 = Sid Maher | author2 = Michael Owen | date = 16 June 2011 | accessdate =16 June 2011 }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/power-prices-to-be-highest-in-the-world/story-e6frea83-1226305741810 | title = South Australia\'s power prices set to become highest in the world says Energy Users Association of Australia | author = Claire Peddie | work = AdelaideNow | date = 21 March 2012 | accessdate =16 June 2012 }}]\n\nSA Power Networks now distributes electricity from transmission companies to end users. Privatisation led to competition from a variety of companies who now separately provide for the generation, transmission, distribution and retail sales of gas and electricity. Some of the major companies are: [[TRUenergy]], which generates electricity; [[ElectraNet]], which transmits electricity from the generators to the distribution network, [[Lumo Energy]] and [[AGL Energy]], which retails gas and electricity.[{{cite web | title=Industry structure | work=Department for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure |url=http://www.energy.sa.gov.au/dhtml/ss/section.php?sectID=12&tempID=1 | accessdate=5 May 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050624044124/http://www.energy.sa.gov.au/dhtml/ss/section.php?sectID=12&tempID=1 |archivedate = 24 June 2005}}] Substantial investment has been made in maintenance and reinforcement of the electricity supply network to provide continued reliability of supply.\n\nAdelaide derives most of its electricity from a gas-fired plant operated by [[AGL Energy]] at [[Torrens Island Power Station, South Australia|Torrens Island]], with more coming from power stations at [[Port Augusta, South Australia|Port Augusta]] and [[Pelican Point Power Station|Pelican Point]], and from connections to the national grid. Gas is mainly supplied from the [[Moomba, South Australia|Moomba]] Gas Processing Plant in the [[Cooper Basin]], and is piped to Adelaide and other areas within the state.[{{cite web | title=Supply Security | work=Department for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure |url=http://www.energy.sa.gov.au/pages/conventional/planning/supply/security.htm:sectID=10&tempID=1 | accessdate=5 May 2006 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050624044821/http://www.energy.sa.gov.au/pages/conventional/planning/supply/security.htm:sectID=10&tempID=1 |archivedate = 24 June 2005}}] South Australia also generates 18% of its electricity from [[wind power]], and has 51% of the installed capacity of wind generators in Australia.[{{citation|url=http://www.sa.gov.au/subject/Water,+energy+and+environment/Energy/Renewable+energy/Wind+energy/Wind+energy+in+South+Australia |title=Wind Energy in South Australia |publisher=Government of South Australia |accessdate=16 June 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20121018043135/http://www.sa.gov.au:80/subject/Water%2C+energy+and+environment/Energy/Renewable+energy/Wind+energy/Wind+energy+in+South+Australia |archivedate=18 October 2012 }}]\n\nAdelaide\'s water supply is gained from its reservoirs: [[Mount Bold Reservoir|Mount Bold]], [[Happy Valley Reservoir|Happy Valley]], [[Myponga Reservoir|Myponga]], [[Millbrook Reservoir|Millbrook]], [[Hope Valley Reservoir|Hope Valley]], [[Little Para Reservoir|Little Para]] and [[South Para Reservoir|South Para]]. The yield from these reservoir catchments can be as little as 10% of the city\'s requirements in drought years and about 60% in average years. The remaining demand is met by the pumping of water from the [[River Murray]]. A [[Adelaide Desalination Plant|sea water desalination plant]] capable of supplying half of Adelaide\'s water requirements (100GL per annum) was opened in 2013. The provision of water services is by the government-owned [[SA Water]].\n\n==See also==\n{{Portal|South Australia}}\n\n\n* [[Adelaide city centre]]\n* [[City of Adelaide]]\n* [[Music of Adelaide]]\n* [[Port Adelaide]]\n* [[Adelaide Hills]]\n\n;Lists\n* [[:Category:Images of Adelaide|Images of Adelaide]] ([[commons:Category:Adelaide|Commons]])\n* [[List of Adelaide parks and gardens]]\n* [[List of Adelaide railway stations]]\n* [[List of Adelaide suburbs]]\n* [[List of Adelaide obsolete suburb names]]\n* [[List of people from Adelaide]]\n* [[List of protected areas in Adelaide]]\n* [[List of public art in South Australia]]\n* [[List of public transport routes in Adelaide]]\n* [[List of sports clubs in Adelaide]]\n* [[List of tallest buildings in Adelaide]]\n* [[:Category:Visitor attractions in South Australia|Visitor attractions in South Australia]]\n\n==References==\n{{Reflist|30em}}\n\n==Further reading==\n* Kathryn Gargett; Susan Marsden, \'\'Adelaide: A Brief History\'\' Adelaide: State History Centre, History Trust of South Australia in association with [[City of Adelaide|Adelaide City Council]], 1996 ISBN 978-0-7308-0116-0\n* Susan Marsden; Paul Stark; Patricia Sumerling, eds, \'\'Heritage of the City of Adelaide: an illustrated guide\'\' Adelaide: Adelaide City Council, 1990, 1996 ISBN 978-0-909866-30-3\n* Derek Whitelock et al., \'\'Adelaide: a sense of difference\'\' Melbourne: Arcadia, 2000 ISBN 978-0-87560-657-6\n\n==External links==\n{{Sister project links|voy=Adelaide|Adelaide}}\n* [http://www.cityofadelaide.com.au/ Adelaide City Council > Official City Guide]\n* [http://www.adelaidecitycouncil.com/ Adelaide City Council]\n\n{{Clear}}\n{{Adelaide landmarks}}\n{{Adelaide Sports Teams}}\n{{South Australia}}\n{{Capital cities of Australia}}\n{{Cities of Australia}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n[[Category:Adelaide| ]]\n[[Category:Australian capital cities]]\n[[Category:Cities in South Australia]]\n[[Category:Coastal cities in Australia]]\n[[Category:Planned capitals]]\n[[Category:Populated places established in 1836]]\n[[Category:1836 establishments in Australia]]'
'AK47' '#REDIRECT [[AK-47]] {{R from alternative spelling}}'
'Alan_Garner' '{{Other people2|Alan Garner (disambiguation)}}\n{{EngvarB|date=April 2014}}\n{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2014}}\n{{Infobox writer \n|name = Alan Garner\n|birth_name = Alan Garner\n|image = Alan Garner.JPG\n|imagesize = 200px\n|caption = Garner in 2011\n|birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=y|1934|10|17}}\n|birth_place = [[Congleton]], Cheshire, England\n|death_date = \n|death_place = \n|spouse = Griselda Garner\n|occupation = Writer, [[folklore|folklorist]]\n|nationality = British\n|period = 1960?present \n|genre = [[Children\'s literature|Children\'s]] [[fantasy]], [[low fantasy]], folklore\n|notableworks = {{plainlist|\n* \'\'[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]\'\'\n* \'\'[[The Moon of Gomrath]]\'\'\n* \'\'[[Elidor]]\'\'\n* \'\'[[The Owl Service]]\'\'\n}}\n|awards = {{awd|[[Carnegie Medal (literary award)|Carnegie Medal]]|1967}} {{awd|[[Guardian Prize]]|1968}}\n|signature = \n}}\n\n\'\'\'Alan Garner\'\'\' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] (born 17 October 1934) is an English novelist best known for his [[children\'s fantasy]] novels and his retellings of traditional British folk tales. His work is firmly rooted in the landscape, history and folklore of his native county of [[Cheshire]], [[North West England]], being set in the region and making use of the native [[Cheshire dialect]].\n\nBorn in [[Congleton]], Garner grew up around the nearby town of [[Alderley Edge]], and spent much of his youth in the wooded area known locally as \'The Edge\', where he gained an early interest in the folklore of the region. Studying at Manchester Grammar School and then briefly at [[Oxford University]], in 1957 he moved to the nearby village of Blackden, where he bought and renovated an Early Modern building known as Toad Hall. His first novel, \'\'[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]\'\', was published in 1960. A children\'s fantasy novel set on the Edge, it incorporated elements of local folklore in its plot and characters. Garner completed a sequel, \'\'[[The Moon of Gomrath]]\'\' (1963), but left the third book of the trilogy he had envisioned. Instead he produced a string of further fantasy novels, \'\'[[Elidor]]\'\' (1965), \'\'[[The Owl Service]]\'\' (1967) and \'\'[[Red Shift (novel)|Red Shift]]\'\' (1973).\n\nTurning away from fantasy as a genre, Garner produced \'\'[[The Stone Book Quartet]]\'\' (1979), a series of four short novellas detailing a day in the life of four generations of his family. He also published a series of British folk tales which he had rewritten in a series of books entitled \'\'Alan Garner\'s Fairy Tales of Gold\'\' (1979), \'\'Alan Garner\'s Book of British Fairy Tales\'\' (1984) and \'\'A Bag of Moonshine\'\' (1986). In his subsequent novels, \'\'[[Strandloper (novel)|Strandloper]]\'\' (1996) and \'\'[[Thursbitch (novel)|Thursbitch]]\'\' (2003), he continued writing tales revolving around Cheshire, although without the fantasy elements which had characterised his earlier work. In 2012, he finally published a third book in the Weirdstone trilogy, \'\'[[Boneland]]\'\'.\n\n==Biography==\n\n===Early life: 1934?56===\n\n{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|\"I had to get aback [to familial ways of doing things], by using skills that had been denied to my ancestors; but I had nothing that they would have called worthwhile. My ability was in language and languages. I had to use that, somehow. And writing was a manual craft. But what did I know that I could write about? I knew the land.\" |source = Alan Garner, 2010{{sfn|Garner|2010|p=8}} }}\n\nGarner was born in the front room of his grandmother\'s house in [[Congleton]], Cheshire, on 17 October 1934.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=11}} He grew up nearby, in [[Alderley Edge]], a well-to-do village that had effectively become a suburb of [[Manchester]].{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=11}} His \"rural working-class family\",{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} had been connected to Alderley Edge since at least the sixteenth century, and could be traced back to the death of William Garner in 1592.{{sfn|Garner|2010|p=5}} Garner claims that his family had passed on \"a genuine oral tradition\" involving folk tales about The Edge, which included a description of a king and his army of knights who slept under it, guarded by a wizard.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} In the mid-nineteenth century Alan\'s great-great grandfather Robert had carved the face of a bearded wizard onto the face of a cliff next to a well, known locally at that time as the Wizard\'s Well.{{sfn|Garner|2010|pp=8?9}}\n\nRobert Garner and his other relatives had all been craftsmen, and, according to Garner, each successive generation had tried to \"improve on, or do something different from, the previous generation\".{{sfn|Garner|2010|p=7}} Garner\'s grandfather, Joseph Garner, \"could read, but didn\'t and so was virtually unlettered\". Instead he taught his grandson the folk tales he knew about The Edge.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} Garner later remarked that as a result he was \"aware of [the Edge\'s] magic\" as a child, and he and his friends often played there.{{sfn|Garner|2010|p=9}} The story of the king and the wizard living under the hill played an important part in his life, becoming, he explained, \"deeply embedded in my psyche\" and heavily influencing his later novels.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}}\n\nGarner faced several life-threatening childhood illnesses, which left him bed ridden for much of the time.{{sfnm|1a1=Philip|1y=1981|1p=11|2a1=Garth|2y=2013}} He went to a local village school, where he found that, despite being praised for his intelligence, he was punished for speaking in his native [[Cheshire dialect]];{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=11}} for instance, when he was six his primary school teacher washed his mouth out with soapy water.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} Garner then won a place at [[Manchester Grammar School]], where he received his secondary education; entry was means-tested, resulting in his school fees being waived.{{sfnm|1a1=Philip|1y=1981|1p=11|2a1=Garth|2y=2013}} Rather than focusing his interest on creative writing, it was here that he excelled at [[Sprint (running)|sprinting]].{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=12}} He was then conscripted into [[national service]], serving for a time with the [[Royal Artillery]] while posted to [[Woolwich]] in [[South East (London sub region)|Southeast London]].{{sfnm|1a1=Philip|1y=1981|1p=12|2a1=Garth|2y=2013}}\n\nAt school, he Garner had developed a keen interest in the work of [[Aeschylus]] and [[Homer]], as well as the [[Ancient Greek language]].{{sfn|Garth|2013}} Thus, he decided to pursue the study of [[Classics]] at [[Magdalen College, Oxford]], passing his entrance exams in January 1953; at the time he had thoughts of becoming a professional academic.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} He was the first member of his family to receive anything more than a basic education, and he noted that this removed him from his \"cultural background\" and led to something of a schism with other members of his family, who \"could not cope with me, and I could not cope with\" them.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} Looking back, he remarked, \"I soon learned that it was not a good idea to come home excited over regular verbs\".{{sfn|Garth|2013}} In 1955, he joined the university theatrical society, playing the role of [[Mark Antony]] in a performance of [[William Shakespeare]]\'s \'\'[[Antony and Cleopatra]]\'\' where he co-starred alongside [[Dudley Moore]] and where [[Kenneth Baker, Baron Baker of Dorking|Kenneth Baker]] was the stage manager.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} In August 1956, he decided that he wished to devote himself to novel writing, and decided to abandon his university education without taking a degree; he left Oxford in late 1956.{{sfnm|1a1=Philip|1y=1981|1p=12|2a1=Garth|2y=2013}} He nevertheless felt that the academic rigour which he learned during his university studies has remained \"a permanent strength through all my life\".{{sfn|Garth|2013}}\n\n===\'\'The Weirdstone of Brisingamen\'\' and \'\'The Moon of Gomrath\'\': 1957?64===\n\nAged 22, Garner was out cycling when he came across a hand-painted sign announcing that an agricultural cottage in Toad Hall – a Late Medieval building situated in Blackden, seven miles from Alderley Edge – was on sale for ?510. Although he personally could not afford it, he was lent the money by the local [[Oddfellow]] lodge, enabling him to purchase and move in to the cottage in June 1957.{{sfnm|1a1=Blackden Trust|1y=2008|2a1=Pitts|2a2=Garner|2y=2014|2p=14}} In the late nineteenth century the Hall had been divided into two agricultural labourers\' cottages, but Garner was able to purchase the second for ?150 about a year later; he proceeded to knock down the dividing walls and convert both halves back into a single home.{{sfnm|1a1=Blackden Trust|1y=2008|2a1=Pitts|2a2=Garner|2y=2014|2p=14}}\n\n[[File:Toad Hall at Blackden.JPG|thumb|left|In 1957, Garner purchased and began renovating Toad Hall at Blackden, Cheshire]]\n\nGarner had begun writing his first novel, \'\'[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen|The Weirdstone of Brisingamen: A Tale of Alderley]]\'\', in September 1956.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=12}} However it was while at Toad Hall that he finished the book. Set in Alderley Edge, it revolved around two children, Susan and Colin, who are sent to live in the area with their mother\'s old nurse maid, Bess, and her husband, Gowther Mossock. Setting about to explore the Edge, they discover a race of malevolent creatures, the \'\'svart alfar\'\', who dwell in the Edge\'s abandoned mines and who seem intent on capturing them, until they are rescued by the wizard Cadellin who reveals that the forces of darkness are amassing at the Edge in search of the titular \"weirdstone of Brisingamen\".{{sfn|Philip|1981|pp=12–13}} Whilst engaged in writing in his spare time, Garner attempted to gain employment as a teacher, but soon gave that up, believing that \"I couldn\'t write and teach; the energies were too similar\", and so began working as a general labourer for four years, remaining unemployed for much of that time.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}}\n\nGarner sent his debut novel to the publishing company [[William Collins, Sons and Co Ltd|Collins]], where it was picked up by the company\'s head, Sir William Collins, who was on the look out for new fantasy novels following on from the recent commercial and critical success of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]\'s \'\'[[The Lord of the Rings]]\'\' (1954?55).{{sfn|Lake|2010|p=317}} Garner, who went on to become a personal friend of Collins, would later relate that \"Billy Collins saw a title with funny-looking words in it on the stockpile, and he decided to publish it.\"{{sfn|Lake|2010|p=317}} On its release in 1960, \'\'The Weirdstone of Brisingamen\'\' proved to be a critical and commercial success,{{sfnm|1a1=Philip|1y=1981|1p=12|2a1=Lake|2y=2010|2pp=316–317}} later being described as \"a tour de force of the imagination, a novel that showed almost every writer who came afterwards what it was possible to achieve in novels ostensibly published for children.\"{{sfn|Lake|2010|pp=316?317}} Garner himself however would later denounce this novel as \"a fairly bad book\" in 1968.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=23}}\n\nWith his first book published, Garner abandoned his work as a labourer and gained a job as a freelance television reporter, living a \"hand to mouth\" lifestyle on a \"shoestring\" budget.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} He also worked on a sequel to \'\'The Weirdstone of Brisingamen\'\', which would be known as \'\'[[The Moon of Gomrath]]\'\'. \'\'The Moon of Gomrath\'\' also revolves around the adventures of Colin and Susan, with the latter being possessed by a malevolent creature called the [[Brollachan]] who has recently entered the world. With the help of the wizard Cadellin, the Brollachan is exorcised, but Susan\'s soul also leaves her body, being sent to another dimension, leading Colin to find a way to bring it back.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=13}} Critic Neil Philip characterised it as \"an artistic advance\" but \"a less satisfying story\".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=13}} In a 1989 interview, Garner stated that he had left scope for a third book following the adventures of Colin and Susan, envisioning a trilogy, but that he had intentionally decided not to write it, instead moving on to write something different.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} However \'\'Boneland\'\', the conclusion to the sequence, was belatedly published in August 2012.[[http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2012/mar/15/alan-garner-weirdstone-brisingamen-trilogy-boneland \"Alan Garner to conclude Weirdstone of Brisingamen trilogy\"]. Alison Flood. \'\'guardian.co.uk\'\' 15 March 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2012.]\n\n===\'\'Elidor\'\', \'\'The Owl Service\'\' and \'\'Red Shift\'\': 1964?73===\n\nIn 1962 Garner began work on a [[radio play]] named \'\'Elidor\'\', which would result in the completion of a novel of the same name.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=14}} Set in contemporary Manchester, \'\'Elidor\'\' tells the story of four children who enter into a derelict Victorian church, in which they find a portal to the magical realm of Elidor. Here, they are entrusted by King Malebron to help rescue four treasures which have been stolen by the forces of evil who are attempting to take control of the kingdom. Successfully doing so, the children return to Manchester with the treasures, but are pursued by the malevolent forces who need them to seal their victory.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=14}}\n\n{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|\"As I turned toward writing, which is partially intellectual in its function, but is primarily intuitive and emotional in its execution, I turned towards that which was numinous and emotional in me, and that was the legend of King Arthur Asleep Under the Hill. It stood for all that I\'d had to give up in order to understand what I\'d had to give up. And so my first two books, which are very poor on characterization because I was somehow numbed in that area, are very strong on imagery and landscape, because the landscape I had inherited along with the legend.\"|source = Alan Garner, 1989{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} }}\n\nBefore writing \'\'Elidor\'\', Garner had seen a dinner service set which could be arranged to make pictures of either flowers or owls. Inspired by this design, he produced his fourth novel, \'\'[[The Owl Service]]\'\'.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=15}} The story was also heavily influenced by the Medieval Welsh tale of [[Math fab Mathonwy]] from, the \'\'[[Mabinogion]]\'\'.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=15}} \'\'The Owl Service\'\' was critically acclaimed, winning both the [[Carnegie Medal (literary award)|Carnegie Medal]] and [[Guardian Children\'s Fiction Prize]].{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=15}} It also sparked discussions among critics as to whether Garner should properly be considered a children\'s writer, given that this book in particular was deemed equally suitable for an adult readership.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=15}}\n\nIt took Garner six years to write his next novel, \'\'[[Red Shift (novel)|Red Shift]]\'\'.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=17}} In this, he provided three intertwined love stories, one set in the present, another during the [[English Civil War]], and the third in the second century CE.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=16}} Philip referred to it as \"a complex book but not a complicated one: the bare lines of story and emotion stand clear\".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=16}}\nAcademic specialist in children\'s literature Maria Nikolajeva characterised \'\'Red Shift\'\' as \"a difficult book\" for an unprepared reader, identifying its main themes as those of \"loneliness and failure to communicate\".{{sfn|Nikolajeva|1989|p=128}} Ultimately, she thought that repeated re-readings of the novel bring about the realisation that \"it is a perfectly realistic story with much more depth and psychologically more credible than the most so-called \"realistic\" juvenile novels.\"{{sfn|Nikolajeva|1989|p=131}}\n\n===\'\'The Stone Book\'\' series and folkloric collections: 1974?94===\n\nFrom 1976 to 1978, Garner published a series of four novellas, which have come to be collectively known as \'\'[[The Stone Book]]\'\' quartet: \'\'The Stone Book\'\', \'\'Granny Reardun\'\', \'\'The Aimer Gate\'\', and \'\'Tom Fobble\'s Day\'\'.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=16}} Each focused on a day in the life of a child in the Garner family, each from a different generation.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=17}}\nIn a 1989 interview, Garner noted that although writing \'\'The Stone Book Quartet\'\' had been \"exhausting\", it had been \"the most rewarding of everything\" he\'d done to date.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} Philip described the quartet as \"a complete command of the material he had been working and reworking since the start of his career\".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=16}}\nGarner pays particular attention to language, and strives to render the cadence of the Cheshire tongue in modern English. This he explains by the sense of anger he felt on reading \"[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]\": the footnotes would not have been needed by his father.{{Citation needed|date=November 2014}}\n\nIn 1981, the literary critic Neil Philip published an analysis of Garner\'s novels as \'\'A Fine Anger\'\', which was based on his doctoral thesis, produced for the [[University of London]] in 1980.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=9}} In this study he noted that \"\'\'The Stone Book\'\' quartet marks a watershed in Garner\'s writing career, and provides a suitable moment for an evaluation of his work thus far.\"{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=17}}\n\n===\'\'Strandloper\'\', \'\'Thursbitch\'\' and \'\'Boneland\'\': 1995–present===\n\n[[File:Garner in the field.jpg|thumb|right|Garner at his home in Blackden, 2011]]\n\nIn 1996, Garner\'s novel \'\'[[Strandloper (novel)|Strandloper]]\'\' was published. His collection of essays and public talks, \'\'The Voice That Thunders\'\', contains much autobiographical material (including an account of his life with [[bipolar disorder]]), as well as critical reflection upon folklore and language, literature and education, the nature of myth and time. In \'\'The Voice That Thunders\'\' he reveals the commercial pressure placed upon him during the decade-long drought (at the height of the [[neoliberal]] tide) which preceded \'\'Strandloper\'\' to \'forsake \"literature\", and become instead a \"popular\" writer, cashing in on my established name by producing sequels to, and making series of, the earlier books\'.[Alan Garner, \'\'The Voice That Thunders\'\' (London 1997), p. 35.] Garner feared that \"making series ... would render sterile the existing work, the life that produced it, and bring about my artistic and spiritual death\"[Garner, \'\'Thunders\'\', p. 36.] and felt unable to comply.\n\nGarner\'s novel, \'\'[[Thursbitch]]\'\', was published in 2003. Garner\'s novel, \'\'Boneland\'\', was published in 2012, nominally completing a trilogy begun some 50 years earlier with \'\'[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]\'\'.\n\n==Personal life==\n\nWith his first wife Anne Cook he had three children.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} In 1972 he married for a second time, this time to Griselda Greaves, a teacher and critic with whom he had two children.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} In a 2014 interview conducted with [[Mike Pitts]] for \'\'British Archaeology\'\' magazine, Garner stated that \"I don\'t have anything to do with the literary world. I avoid writers. I don\'t like them. Most of my close personal friends are professional archaeologists.\"{{sfn|Pitts|Garner|2014|p=15}}\n\n==Literary style==\n\n{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|\"I have four filing cabinets of correspondence from readers, and over the years the message is clear and unwavering. Readers under the age of eighteen read what I write with more passion, understanding, and clarity of perception than do adults. Adults bog down, claim that I\'m difficult, obscurantist, wilful, and sometimes simply trying to confuse. I\'m not; I\'m just trying to get the simple story simply told... I didn\'t consciously set out to write for children, but somehow I connect with them. I think that\'s something to do with my psychopathology, and I\'m not equipped to evaluate it.\"|source = Alan Garner, 1989{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} }}\n\nAlthough Garner\'s early work is often labelled as \"children\'s literature\", Garner himself rejects such a description, informing one interviewer that \"I certainly have never written for children\" but that instead he has always written purely for himself.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} Neil Philip, in his critical study of Garner\'s work (1981), commented that up till that point, \"Everything Alan Garner has published has been published for children\",{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=7}} although he went on to relate that \"It may be that Garner\'s is a case\" where the division between children\'s and adult\'s literature is \"meaningless\" and that his fiction is instead \"enjoyed by a type of person, no matter what their age.\"{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=8}}\n\nPhilip offered the opinion that the \"essence of his work\" was \"the struggle to render the complex in simple, bare terms; to couch the abstract in the concrete and communicate it directly to the reader\".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=9}} He added that Garner\'s work is \"intensely autobiographical, in both obvious and subtle ways\".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=9}} Highlighting Garner\'s use of mythological and folkloric sources, Philip stated that his work explores \"the disjointed and troubled psychological and emotional landscape of the twentieth century through the symbolism of myth and folklore.\"{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=21}} He also expressed the opinion that \"Time is Gardner\'s most consistent theme\".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=16}}\n\nThe English author and academic [[Charles Butler (author)|Charles Butler]] noted that Garner was attentive to the \"geological, archaeological and cultural history of his settings, and careful to integrate his fiction with the physical reality beyond the page.\"{{sfn|Butler|2009|p=146}} As a part of this, Garner had included maps of Alderley Edge in both \'\'The Weirdstone of Brisingamen\'\' and \'\'The Moon of Gomrath\'\'.{{sfn|Butler|2009|pp=146?147}} Garner has spent much time investigating the areas that he deals with in his books; writing in the \'\'[[Times Literary Supplement]]\'\' in 1968, Garner commented that in preparation for writing his book \'\'Elidor\'\':\n\n:I had to read extensively textbooks on physics, Celtic symbolism, unicorns, medieval watermarks, megalithic archaeology; study the writings of [[Carl Jung|Jung]]; brush up my [[Plato]]; visit [[Avebury]], [[Silbury Hill|Silbury]] and [[Coventry Cathedral]]; spend a lot of time with demolition gangs on slum clearance sites; and listen to the whole of [[Benjamin Britten|Britten]]\'s \'\'[[War Requiem]]\'\' nearly every day.{{sfn|Garner|1968|p=577}}\n\n==Recognition and legacy==\n\n[[File:The Medicine House.JPG|thumb|right|The Medicine House, an Early Modern building that was moved to Blackden by Garner.]]\n\nIn a paper published in the \'\'[[Children\'s Literature Association Quarterly]]\'\', Maria Nikolajeva characterised Garner as \"one of the most controversial\" authors of modern children\'s literature.{{sfn|Nikolajeva|1989|p=128}}\n\nIn the fiftieth anniversary edition of \'\'The Weirdstone of Brisingamen\'\', published by [[HarperCollins]] in 2010, several notable British fantasy novelists praised Garner and his work. [[Susan Cooper]] related that \"The power and range of Alan Garner\'s astounding talent has grown with every book he\'s written\", whilst [[David Almond]] called him one of Britain\'s \"greatest writers\" whose works \"really matter\".{{sfnm|1a1=Pullman|1a2=Gaiman|1a3=Cooper|1a4=Nix|1a5=Almond|1a6=Faber|1y=2010|1p=2}} [[Philip Pullman]], the author of the \'\'[[His Dark Materials]]\'\' trilogy, went further when he remarked that:\n\n:\"Garner is indisputably the great originator, the most important British writer of fantasy since [[J.R.R. Tolkien|Tolkien]], and in many respects better than Tolkien, because deeper and more truthful... Any country except Britain would have long ago recognised his importance, and celebrated it with postage stamps and statues and street-names. But that\'s the way with us: our greatest prophets go unnoticed by the politicians and the owners of media empires. I salute him with the most heartfelt respect and admiration.\"{{sfnm|1a1=Pullman|1a2=Gaiman|1a3=Cooper|1a4=Nix|1a5=Almond|1a6=Faber|1y=2010|1p=1}}\n\nAnother British fantasy writer, [[Neil Gaiman]], claimed that \"Garner\'s fiction is something special\" in that it was \"smart and challenging, based in the here and the now, in which real English places emerged from the shadows of folklore, and in which people found themselves walking, living and battling their way through the dreams and patterns of myth.\"{{sfnm|1a1=Pullman|1a2=Gaiman|1a3=Cooper|1a4=Nix|1a5=Almond|1a6=Faber|1y=2010|1p=1}} Praise also came from Nick Lake, the editorial director of [[HarperCollins]] Children\'s Books, who proclaimed that \"Garner is, quite simply, one of the greatest and most influential writers this country has ever produced.\"{{sfn|Lake|2010|pp=315?316}}\n\n===Awards===\n\nThe biennial [[Hans Christian Andersen Award]] conferred by the [[International Board on Books for Young People]] is the highest recognition available to a writer or illustrator of children\'s books. Garner was the sole runner-up for the writing award in 1978.[[http://www.ibby.org/index.php?id=273 \"Hans Christian Andersen Awards\"]. [[International Board on Books for Young People]] (IBBY). Retrieved 29 July 2013.][[http://www.literature.at/viewer.alo?objid=14769&viewmode=fullscreen&scale=3.33&rotate=&page=105 \"Candidates for the Hans Christian Andersen Awards 1956?2002\"]. \'\'The Hans Christian Andersen Awards, 1956?2002\'\'. IBBY. [[Gyldendal]]. 2002. Pages 110?18. Hosted by [[Austrian Literature Online]] (literature.at). Retrieved 29 July 2013.]\n\nGarner was appointed [[Officer of the Order of the British Empire]] (OBE) for services to literature in the 2001 [[British honours system|New Year\'s Honours list]]. He received the [[British Fantasy Society]]\'s occasional [[British Fantasy Awards|Karl Edward Wagner Award]] in 2003 and the [[World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement]] in 2012.[[http://www.sfadb.com/Alan_Garner \"Alan Garner\"]. Science Fiction Awards Database (sfadb.com). Mark R. Kelly and the [[Locus Science Fiction Foundation]]. Retrieved 29 July 2013.] In January 2011, the [[University of Warwick]] awarded the degree of [[Doctor of Letters]] ([[honoris causa]]).[{{cite web|url=http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/warwick_awards_honorary/|title=Warwick awards honorary degree to acclaimed Cheshire author Alan Garner |work=News & Events |publisher=University of Warwick |date=21 January 2011 |accessdate=25 January 2011}}] On that occasion he gave a half-hour interview about his work.[{{cite web|url=http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/english/writingprog/archive/writers/garneralan/200111|title=Alan Garner ? The Weirdstone of Brisingamen |work= Writers at Warwick Archive |publisher=University of Warwick |date=20 January 2011 |accessdate=13 July 2012}}]\n\nHe has been recognised several times for particular works.\n* \'\'[[The Owl Service]]\'\' (1967) won both the [[Carnegie Medal (literary award)|Carnegie Medal]][[http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/livingarchive/title.php?id=91 (Carnegie Winner 1967)]. Living Archive: Celebrating the Carnegie and Greenaway Winners. [[CILIP]]. Retrieved 11 July 2012.] and the [[Guardian Children\'s Fiction Prize]],[[http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2001/mar/12/guardianchildrensfictionprize2001.guardianchildrensfictionprize \"Guardian children\'s fiction prize relaunched: Entry details and list of past winners\"]. \'\'guardian.co.uk\'\' 12 March 2001. Retrieved 2 August 2012.] For the 70th anniversary of the Carnegie in 2007 it was named one of the top ten Medal-winning works, selected by a panel to compose the ballot for a public election of the all-time favourite.[[http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/celebration/top_tens.php?action=list \"70 Years Celebration: Anniversary Top Tens\"]. The CILIP Carnegie & Kate Greenaway Children\'s Book Awards. CILIP. Retrieved 11 July 2012.]\n* \'\'[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]\'\' (1960) was named to the [[Lewis Carroll Shelf Award]] list by the [[University of Wisconsin?Madison School of Education]] in 1970, denoting that it \"belongs on the same shelf\" with the 1865 classic \'\'[[Alice in Wonderland]]\'\' and its sequel.\n* \'\'[[The Stone Book]]\'\' (1976), first in the Stone Book series,[[http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/pe.cgi?12025 Stone Book series]. [[The Internet Speculative Fiction Database]]. Retrieved 11 July 2012.] won the 1996 [[Phoenix Award]] as the best English-language children\'s book that did not a major award when it was originally published twenty years earlier.[[http://www.childlitassn.org/images/resources/resources-Children-squo-s_Lit_-_Phoenix_Award_Brochure_2012.pdf \"Phoenix Award Brochure 2012\"]. [[Children\'s Literature Association]]. Retrieved 12 December 2012.]
See also the current homepage [http://www.childlitassn.org/index.php?page=about&family=awards&category=06--Phoenix_Award&display=27 \"Phoenix Award\"].\n* The 1981 film \'\'Images\'\' won First Prize at the [[Chicago International Film Festival]][[http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2008/jun/13/alan.garner \"Alan Garner\", \'\'Guardian\'\' 22 July 2008]]\n\n==Television and radio adaptations==\n\n* \'\' [[The Owl Service (TV series)|The Owl Service]] \'\' (1969), a British TV series transmitted by Granada Television based on Garner\'s novel of the same name.\n* \'\'Elidor\'\' was read in instalments on a BBC children\'s radio program in the early 1970s.\n* \'\'Red Shift\'\' (BBC, transmitted 17 January 1978); directed by John Mackenzie; part of the BBC\'s \'\'[[Play for Today]]\'\' series.\n* \'\'To Kill a King\'\' (1980), part of the BBC series of plays on supernatural themes, \'\'[[Leap in the Dark]]\'\': an atmospheric story about a writer overcoming depression and writer\'s block. The hero\'s home appears to be Garner\'s own house.\n* Garner and [[Don Webb (playwright)|Don Webb]] adapted \'\'Elidor\'\' as a BBC children\'s television series shown in 1995, comprising six half-hour episodes starring [[Damian Zuk]] as Roland and [[Suzanne Shaw]] as Helen.[[http://imdb.com/title/tt0303455/ \"Elidor (1995? )\"]. [[Internet Movie Database]]. Retrieved 18 August 2010.][[http://www.classickidstv.co.uk/wiki/Elidor \"Elidor\"]. Classic Kids TV (\'\'classickidstv.com\'\'). Retrieved 18 August 2010.]\n\n==Works==\n{{col-begin}}\n{{col-break}}\n\n===Novels===\n* \'\'[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]\'\', 1960\n* \'\'[[The Moon of Gomrath]]\'\', 1963\n* \'\'[[Elidor]]\'\', 1965\n* \'\'[[The Owl Service]]\'\', 1967\n* \'\'[[Red Shift (novel)|Red Shift]]\'\', 1973\n* \'\'[[Strandloper (novel)|Strandloper]]\'\', 1996\n* \'\'[[Thursbitch]]\'\', 2003\n* \'\'[[Boneland]]\'\', 2012\n{{col-break}}\n\n===Short story collections===\n* \'\'The Guizer: A Book of Fools\'\', 1975\n* \'\'[[The Stone Book Quartet]]\'\', 1979\n* \'\'The Lad of the Gad\'\', 1980\n* \'\'Fairytales of Gold\'\', 1980, illus. [[Michael Foreman (illustrator)|Michael Foreman]].\n* \'\'Book of British Fairy Tales\'\', 1984, illus. Derek Collard.\n* \'\'A Bag of Moonshine\'\', 1986, illus. [[P. J. Lynch]].\n* \'\'Once Upon a Time\'\', 1993\n* \'\'Collected Folk Tales\'\', 2011\n{{col-break}}\n\n===Other books===\n* \'\'Holly from the Bongs: A Nativity Play\'\', 1966\n* \'\'The Old Man of Mow\'\', 1967\n* \'\'The Breadhorse\'\', 1975\n* \'\'Jack and the Beanstalk\'\', 1992\n* \'\'The Little Red Hen\'\', 1997\n* \'\'The Well of the Wind\'\', 1998\n* \'\'Grey Wolf, Prince Jack and the Firebird\'\', 1998\n* \'\'The Voice That Thunders\'\', 1997\n{{col-end}}\n\n==See also==\n{{Portal bar |Children\'s literature |Fantasy |Mythology }} \n\n==References==\n\n===Footnotes===\n{{Reflist|colwidth=25em}}\n\n===Sources===\n{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}\n: {{cite web |url=http://www.theblackdentrust.org.uk/aboutus_toadhall.php |title=Toad Hall |last=Blackden Trust |year=2008 |accessdate=10 September 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6Tw032tMm |archivedate=8 November 2014 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite journal |last=Butler |first=Charles |year=2001 |title=Alan Garner\'s \'\'Red Shift\'\' and the Shifting Ballad of \"Tam Lin\" |journal= Children\'s Literature Association Quarterly |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=74–83 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution |last=Butler |first=Charles |year=2009 |title=Children of the Stones: Prehistoric Sites in British Children\'s Fantasy, 1965?2005 |journal=Written on Stone: The Cultural Reception of British Prehistoric Monuments |others=Joanne Parker (ed.) |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |location=Newcastle upon Tyne |pages=145?154 |isbn=978-1443813389 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite news |title=A Bit More Practice |last=Garner |first=Alan |newspaper=Times Literary Supplement |location=London |date=6 June 1968 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution |last=Garner |first=Alan |year=2010 |contribution=Introduction by the Author |title=The Weirdstone of Brisingamen |edition=50th Anniversary |publisher=HarperCollins Children\'s Books |location=London |pages=05?14 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite web |last=Garth |first=John |title=The Storyteller |date=22 May 2013 |website=Oxford Today |url=http://www.oxfordtoday.ox.ac.uk/features/storyteller# |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite journal |last=Gillies |first=Carolyn |title=Possession and Structure in the Novels of Alan Garner |journal=Children\'s Literature in Education |year=1975 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=107–117 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite journal |last=Hardwick |first=Paul |title=\"Not in the Middle Ages\"?: Alan Garner\'s \'\'The Owl Service\'\' and the Literature of Adolescence |volume=31 |number=1 |pages=23–30 |journal=Children\'s Literature in Education |year=2000 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution |last=Lake |first=Nick |year=2010 |contribution=A Note from the Publisher |title=The Weirdstone of Brisingamen |edition=50th Anniversary |publisher=HarperCollins Children\'s Books |location=London |pages=315?320 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite journal |last=Lockwood |first=Michael |title=\"A Sense of the Spoken\": Language in \'\'The Owl Service\'\' |journal=Children\'s Literature in Education |year=1992 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=83–92 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite journal |last=Nikolajeva |first=Maria |title=The Insignificance of Time: \'\'Red Shift\'\' |journal= Children\'s Literature Association Quarterly |volume=14 |number=3 |pages=128–131 |year=1989 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title=A Fine Anger: A Critical Introduction to the Work of Alan Garner |last=Philip |first=Neil |year=1981 |publisher=Collins |location=London |isbn=0-00-195043-6 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite journal |title=Colouring the Imagination with Facts |last1=Pitts |first1=Mike |last2=Garner |first2=Alan |year=2014 |journal=British Archaeology |publisher=Council for British Archaeology |number=139 |pages=14–15 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution |last1=Pullman |first1=Philip |last2=Gaiman |first2=Neil |last3=Cooper |first3=Susan |last4=Nix |first4=Garth |last5=Almond |first5=David |last6=Faber |first6=Michael |year=2010 |contribution=Praise for Garner |title=The Weirdstone of Brisingamen |edition=50th Anniversary |publisher=HarperCollins Children\'s Books |location=London |pages=1?2 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite journal |last=Reimer |first=Mavis |title=The Family as Mythic Reservoir in Alan Garner\'s \'\'Stone Book Quartet\'\' |year=1989 |journal= Children\'s Literature Association Quarterly |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=132–135 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite web |url=http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/intrvws/garner.htm |title=Interview with Alan Garner |last1=Thompson |first1=Raymond H. |last2=Garner |first2=Alan |date=12 April 1989 |accessdate=10 September 2011 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6Tw7CR4wn |archivedate=8 November 2014 |ref=harv}}\n{{refend}}\n\n==Further reading==\n* {{cite book |title=Four British Fantasists: Place and Culture in the Children\'s Fantasies of Penelope Lively, Alan Garner, Diana Wynne Jones, and Susan Cooper |last=Butler, Charles |year= 2006 |publisher=Scarecrow |location=Lanham MD |isbn=978-0-8108-5242-6 |ref=But06}}\n{{refend}}\n\n==External links==\n* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/alangarner?INTCMP=SRCH Alan Garner] coverage by \'\'[[The Guardian]]\'\'\n* {{IMDb name|1241337}}\n* {{isfdb name|668}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Garner, Alan}}\n[[Category:English short story writers]]\n[[Category:English children\'s writers]]\n[[Category:English fantasy writers]]\n[[Category:Carnegie Medal in Literature winners]]\n[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature]]\n[[Category:Guardian Children\'s Fiction Prize winners]]\n[[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire]]\n[[Category:Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford]]\n[[Category:People educated at Manchester Grammar School]]\n[[Category:People from Alderley Edge]]\n[[Category:People from Congleton]]\n[[Category:People with bipolar disorder]]\n[[Category:1934 births]]\n[[Category:Living people]]'
'Amhrann_na_bhFiann' '#REDIRECT [[Amhr?n na bhFiann]]'
'August_2' '{{pp-pc1}}\n{{About||the 2012 film|August 2 (film)}}\n{{pp-move-indef}}\n{{calendar}}\n{{This date in recent years}}\n{{Day}}\n\n==Events==\n*[[338 BC]] – A [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonian army]] led by [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] defeated the combined forces of [[Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] in the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]], securing [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] [[hegemony]] in Greece and the [[Aegean civilizations|Aegean]].\n*[[216 BC]] – [[Second Punic War]]: [[Battle of Cannae]]: The [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] army led by [[Hannibal]] defeats a numerically superior [[Roman Republic|Roman]] army under command of [[consul]]s [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (consul 219 BC)|Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] and [[Gaius Terentius Varro]].\n* [[461]] – [[Majorian]] is arrested near [[Tortona]] ([[Northern Italy]]) and deposed by the [[Suebi]]an general [[Ricimer]] as [[Puppet monarch|puppet emperor]].\n*[[1274]] – [[Edward I of England]] returns from the [[Ninth Crusade]] and is crowned King seventeen days later.\n*[[1343]] – Olivier de Clisson is found guilty of treason and beheaded at [[Les Halles]] in Paris. As a result, his wife, [[Jeanne de Clisson]], sold their holding, bought a fleet of ships, and took to the sea as a pirate to seek revenge against King [[Philip VI of France]] and the nobility.\n*[[1377]] – Russian troops are defeated in the [[Battle on Pyana River]].\n*[[1610]] – [[Henry Hudson]] sails into what is now known as [[Hudson Bay]] thinking he had made it through the [[Northwest Passage]] and reached the Pacific Ocean.\n*[[1776]] – The signing of the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] took place.\n*[[1790]] – The first [[United States Census]] is conducted.\n*[[1798]] – [[French Revolutionary Wars]]: The [[Battle of the Nile]] concludes in a British victory.\n*[[1830]] – [[Charles X of France]] abdicates the throne in favor of his grandson [[Henri, Count of Chambord|Henri]].\n*[[1869]] – Japan\'s [[samurai]], farmer, [[artisan]], [[merchant]] class system ([[Four occupations (East Asia)|Shin?k?sh?]]) is abolished as part of the [[Meiji Restoration]] reforms. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: June 25, 1869).\n*[[1870]] – [[Tower Subway]], the world\'s first [[rapid transit|underground tube railway]], opens in [[London|London, England]], United Kingdom.\n*[[1873]] – The [[Clay Street Hill Railroad]] begins operating the first [[cable car (railway)|cable car]] in [[San Francisco]]\'s famous [[San Francisco cable car system|cable car system]].\n*[[1897]] – [[Anglo-Afghan War]]: The [[Siege of Malakand]] ends when a relief column is able to reach the [[British Indian Army|British]] garrison in the [[Malakand Agency|Malakand states]] adjacent to India\'s [[North-West Frontier Province (1901?55)|North West Frontier Province]].\n*[[1903]] – [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire]]: An unsuccessful uprising led by the [[Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization]] against [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Turkey]], also known as the [[Ilinden?Preobrazhenie Uprising]], takes place.\n*[[1916]] – [[World War I]]: [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian]] sabotage causes the sinking of the Italian battleship \'\'[[Italian battleship Leonardo da Vinci|Leonardo da Vinci]]\'\' in [[Taranto]].\n*[[1918]] – Japan announces that it is deploying troops to [[Siberia]] in the aftermath of World War I.\n* 1918 – The first [[general strike]] in Canadian history [[1918 Vancouver general strike|takes place]] in Vancouver.\n*[[1922]] – A [[1922 Swatow typhoon|typhoon]] hits [[Shantou]], [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] killing more than 50,000 people.\n*[[1923]] – Vice President [[Calvin Coolidge]] becomes [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] upon the death of President [[Warren G. Harding]].\n*[[1932]] – The [[positron]] ([[antiparticle]] of the [[electron]]) is discovered by [[Carl David Anderson|Carl D. Anderson]].\n*[[1934]] – [[Gleichschaltung]]: [[Adolf Hitler]] becomes \'\'[[F?hrer]]\'\' of Germany following the death of President [[Paul von Hindenburg]].\n*[[1937]] – The [[Marihuana Tax Act of 1937]] is passed in America, the effect of which is to render [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] and all its by-products illegal.\n*[[1939]] – [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Leo Szilard]] write [[Einstein?Szil?rd letter|a letter]] to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], urging him to begin the [[Manhattan Project]] to develop a nuclear weapon.\n*[[1943]] – Rebellion in the [[Nazism|Nazi]] [[Extermination camp|death camp]] of [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]].\n* 1943 – [[World War II]]: The [[Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109]] is rammed by the [[Imperial Japanese Navy|Japanese]] destroyer \'\'[[Japanese destroyer Amagiri (1930)|Amagiri]]\'\' and sinks. Lt. [[John F. Kennedy]], future U.S. President, saves all but two of his crew.\n*[[1944]] – [[ASNOM]]: Birth of the [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia]], celebrated as [[Republic Day (Republic of Macedonia)|Day of the Republic]] in the [[Republic of Macedonia]].\n* 1944 – World War II: The [[Convoy HX 300|largest trade convoy]] of the world wars arrives safely in the [[Western Approaches]].\n*[[1945]] – World War II: End of the [[Potsdam Conference]]. \n*[[1947]] – A [[British South American Airways]] [[Avro Lancastrian]] airliner [[1947 BSAA Avro Lancastrian Star Dust accident|crashes into a mountain]] during a flight from [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]] to [[Santiago]], [[Chile]]. The wreckage would not be found until 1998.\n*[[1964]] – [[Vietnam War]]: [[Gulf of Tonkin incident]]: [[North Vietnam]]ese gunboats allegedly fire on the U.S. destroyer {{USS|Maddox|DD-731|6}}.\n*[[1968]] – An [[1968 Casiguran earthquake|earthquake]] hits [[Casiguran, Aurora]], [[Philippines]] killing more than 270 people and wounding 261.\n*[[1973]] – A flash fire kills 51 at the [[Summerland disaster|Summerland]] amusement centre at [[Douglas, Isle of Man]].\n*[[1980]] – A [[Bologna massacre|bomb explodes]] at the [[Bologna Centrale railway station|railway station]] in [[Bologna]], Italy, killing 85 people and wounding more than 200.\n*[[1985]] – [[Delta Air Lines Flight 191]], a [[Lockheed L-1011 TriStar]], crashes at [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]] killing 137.\n*[[1989]] – [[Pakistan]] is re-admitted to the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] after having restored democracy for the first time since [[1972]].\n* 1989 – A [[1989 Valvettiturai massacre|massacre]] is carried out by an [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] in [[Sri Lanka]] killing 64 ethnic [[Tamil people|Tamil]] civilians.\n*[[1990]] – [[Iraq]] invades [[Kuwait]], eventually leading to the [[Gulf War]].\n*[[1998]] – The [[Second Congo War]] begins.\n*[[2005]] – [[Air France Flight 358]], lands at [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]], and runs off the runway causing the plane to burst into flames leaving 12 injuries and no fatalities.\n*[[2014]] – At least 146 people were killed and more than 114 injured in an [[2014 Kunshan explosion|explosion]] at a factory near [[Shanghai]].\n\n==Births==\n*[[1455]] – [[John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg]] (d. 1499)\n*[[1533]] – [[Theodor Zwinger]], Swiss physician and scholar (d. 1588)\n*[[1612]] – [[Saskia van Uylenburgh]], Dutch model (d. 1642)\n*[[1672]] – [[Johann Jakob Scheuchzer]], Swiss paleontologist and scholar (d. 1733)\n*[[1674]] – [[Philippe II, Duke of Orl?ans]] (d. 1723)\n*[[1696]] – [[Mahmud I]], Ottoman sultan (d. 1754)\n*[[1702]] – [[Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau]] (d. 1769)\n*[[1703]] – [[Lorenzo Ricci]], Italian religious leader, 18th [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus]] (d. 1775)\n*[[1740]] – [[Jean Baptiste Camille Canclaux]], French general (d. 1817)\n*[[1754]] – [[Pierre Charles L\'Enfant]], French-American architect and engineer, designed [[Washington, D.C.]] (d. 1825)\n*[[1788]] – [[Leopold Gmelin]], German chemist and academic (d. 1853)\n*[[1815]] – [[Adolf Friedrich von Schack]], German poet and historian (d. 1894)\n*[[1820]] – [[John Tyndall]], Irish-English physicist and mountaineer (d. 1893)\n*[[1828]] – [[Manuel Pav?a y Rodr?guez de Alburquerque]], Spanish general (d. 1895)\n*[[1834]] – [[Fr?d?ric Auguste Bartholdi]], French sculptor, designed the [[Statue of Liberty]] (d. 1904)\n*[[1835]] – [[Elisha Gray]], American businessman, co-founded [[Western Electric]] (d. 1901)\n*[[1858]] – [[Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont]] (d. 1934)\n*[[1861]] – [[Prafulla Chandra Ray]], Bangladeshi chemist and academic (d. 1944)\n*[[1865]] – [[Irving Babbitt]], American academic and critic (d. 1933)\n* 1865 – [[John Radecki]], Australian [[stained glass]] artist (d. 1955)\n*[[1867]] – [[Ernest Dowson]], English author and poet (d. 1900)\n*[[1868]] – [[Constantine I of Greece]] (d. 1923)\n*[[1871]] – [[John French Sloan]], American painter and illustrator (d. 1951)\n*[[1872]] – [[George E. Stewart]], Australian-American colonel, [[Medal of Honor]] recipient (d. 1946)\n*[[1875]] – [[Mstislav Dobuzhinsky]], Russian-American painter and illustrator (d. 1957)\n*[[1876]] – [[Ravishankar Shukla]], Indian lawyer and politician, 1st [[List of Chief Ministers of Madhya Pradesh|Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh]] (d. 1956)\n* 1876 – [[Pingali Venkayya]], Indian geologist, designed the [[Flag of India]] (d. 1963)\n*[[1878]] – [[Aino Kallas]], Finnish-Estonian author (d. 1956)\n*[[1880]] – [[Arthur Dove]], American painter and educator (d. 1946)\n*[[1882]] – [[Red Ames]], American baseball player and manager (d. 1936)\n* 1882 – [[Albert Bloch]], American painter and academic (d. 1961)\n*[[1884]] – [[R?mulo Gallegos]], Venezuelan author and politician, 46th [[List of Presidents of Venezuela|President of Venezuela]] (d. 1969)\n*[[1886]] – [[John Alexander Douglas McCurdy]] Canadian pilot and politician, 20th [[Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia]] (d. 1961)\n*[[1887]] – [[Oskar Anderson]], Bulgarian-German mathematician and statistician (d. 1960)\n* 1887 – [[Tommy Ward (cricketer)|Tommy Ward]], Indian-South African cricketer (d. 1936)\n*[[1890]] – [[Marin Sais]], American actress (d. 1971)\n*[[1891]] – [[Arthur Bliss]], English composer and conductor (d. 1975)\n* 1891 – [[Viktor Zhirmunsky]], Russian linguist and historian (d. 1971)\n*[[1892]] – [[Jack L. Warner]], Canadian-born American production manager and producer, co-founded [[Warner Bros.]] (d. 1978)\n*[[1895]] – [[Matt Henderson (cricketer)|Matt Henderson]], New Zealand cricketer (d. 1970)\n*[[1897]] – [[Karl-Otto Koch]], German [[SS]] officer (d. 1945)\n* 1897 – [[Max Weber (Swiss politician)|Max Weber]], Swiss lawyer and politician (d. 1974)\n*[[1898]] – [[Ern? Nagy]], Hungarian fencer (d. 1977)\n*[[1899]] – [[Charles Bennett (screenwriter)|Charles Bennett]], English director and screenwriter (d. 1995)\n*[[1900]] – [[Holling C. Holling]], American author and illustrator (d. 1973)\n* 1900 – [[Helen Morgan]], American actress and singer (d. 1941)\n*[[1902]] – [[Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria]] (d. 1971)\n*[[1905]] – [[Karl Amadeus Hartmann]], German composer (d. 1963)\n* 1905 – [[Myrna Loy]], American actress (d. 1993)\n*[[1907]] – [[Mary Hamman]], American journalist and author (d. 1984)\n*[[1910]] – [[Roger MacDougall]], Scottish director, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1993)\n*[[1911]] – [[Ann Dvorak]], American actress (d. 1979)\n*[[1912]] – [[Palle Huld]], Danish actor (d. 2010)\n* 1912 – [[H?kon Stenstadvold]], Norwegian painter, illustrator, and critic (d. 1977)\n* 1912 – [[Vladimir ?erjavi?]], Croatian economist and author (d. 2001)\n*[[1913]] – [[Xavier Thaninayagam]], Sri Lankan scholar and academic (d. 1980)\n*[[1914]] – [[F?lix Leclerc]], Canadian singer-songwriter, actor, and poet (d. 1988)\n* 1914 – [[Big Walter Price]], American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2012)\n* 1914 – [[Beatrice Straight]], American actress (d. 2001)\n*[[1915]] – [[Gary Merrill]], American actor and singer (d. 1990)\n*[[1916]] – [[Alfonso A. Ossorio]], Filipino-American painter and sculptor (d. 1990)\n*[[1919]] – [[Nehemiah Persoff]], Israeli-American actor and singer\n*[[1920]] – [[Louis Pauwels]], French journalist and author (d. 1997)\n* 1920 – [[Augustus Rowe]], Canadian physician and politician (d. 2013)\n*[[1921]] – [[Alan Whicker]], Egyptian-English journalist (d. 2013)\n*[[1922]] – [[G?bor Ag?rdy]], Hungarian actor (d. 2006)\n* 1922 – [[Betsy Bloomingdale]], American philanthropist and socialite \n* 1922 – [[Geoffrey Dutton]], Australian historian and author (d. 1998)\n*[[1923]] – [[Shimon Peres]], Polish-Israeli lawyer and politician, 9th [[President of Israel]]\n*[[1924]] – [[James Baldwin]], American novelist, poet, and critic (d. 1987)\n* 1924 – [[Joe Harnell]], American pianist and composer (d. 2005)\n* 1924 – [[Carroll O\'Connor]], American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001)\n*[[1925]] – [[K. Arulanandan]], Ceylon-American engineer and academic (d. 2004)\n* 1925 – [[John Dexter]], English director and producer (d. 1990)\n* 1925 – [[John McCormack (ice hockey)|John McCormack]], Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1925 – [[Jorge Rafael Videla]], Argentinian general and politician, 43rd [[President of Argentina]] (d. 2013)\n*[[1927]] – [[Peter Swinnerton-Dyer]], English mathematician and academic\n*[[1928]] – [[Malcolm Hilton]], English cricketer (d. 1990)\n*[[1929]] – [[Roy Crimmins]], English trombonist and composer (d. 2014)\n* 1929 – [[John Gale (theatre producer)|John Gale]], English director and producer\n* 1929 – [[K. M. Peyton]], English author and educator\n* 1929 – [[Vidya Charan Shukla]], Indian politician, [[Minister of External Affairs (India)|Indian Minister of External Affairs]] (d. 2013)\n* 1929 – [[David Waddington, Baron Waddington]], English lawyer and politician, [[Governor of Bermuda]]\n*[[1930]] – [[Vali Myers]], Australian painter and dancer (d. 2003)\n*[[1931]] – [[Pierre DuMaine]], American bishop and academic\n* 1931 – [[Eddie Fuller]], South African cricketer (d. 2008)\n* 1931 – [[Karl Miller]], English journalist and critic (d. 2014)\n* 1931 – [[Viliam Schrojf]], Czech footballer (d. 2007)\n*[[1932]] – [[Lamar Hunt]], American businessman, co-founded the [[American Football League]] and [[World Championship Tennis]] (d. 2006)\n* 1932 – [[Peter O\'Toole]], British-Irish actor and producer (d. 2013)\n*[[1933]] – [[Ioannis Varvitsiotis]], Greek politician, [[List of defence ministers of Greece|Greek Minister of Defence]]\n*[[1934]] – [[Valery Bykovsky]], Russian general and astronaut\n*[[1935]] – [[Amidou]], Moroccan-French actor (d. 2013)\n* 1935 – [[Betty Brosmer]], American model and author\n* 1935 – [[Hank Cochran]], American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)\n*[[1936]] – [[Anthony Payne]], English composer and author\n*[[1937]] – [[Ron Brierley]], New Zealand businessman\n* 1937 – [[Billy Cannon]], American football player and dentist\n* 1937 – [[Garth Hudson]], Canadian keyboard player, songwriter, and producer ([[The Band]] and [[The Call (band)|The Call]])\n* 1937 – [[Gundula Janowitz]], Austrian operatic soprano \n* 1937 – [[John Salt]], English painter\n*[[1938]] – [[Dave Balon]], Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2007)\n* 1938 – [[Pierre de Ban?]], Israeli-Canadian lawyer and politician\n* 1938 – [[Paul Jenkins (actor)|Paul Jenkins]], American actor (d. 2013)\n* 1938 – [[Terry Peck]], Falkland Islander soldier (d. 2006)\n*[[1939]] – [[Benjamin Barber]], American theorist, author, and academic\n* 1939 – [[Wes Craven]], American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)\n* 1939 – [[John W. Snow]], American businessman and politician, 73rd [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]]\n*[[1940]] – [[Beko Ransome-Kuti]], Nigerian physician and activist (d. 2006)\n* 1940 – [[Will Tura]], Belgian singer-songwriter and guitarist\n*[[1941]] – [[Doris Coley]], American singer ([[The Shirelles]]) (d. 2000)\n* 1941 – [[Jules A. Hoffmann]], Luxembourgian-French biologist and academic, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate\n* 1941 – [[Ede Staal]], Dutch singer-songwriter (d. 1986)\n* 1941 – [[Fran?ois Weyergans]], Belgian director and screenwriter\n*[[1942]] – [[Isabel Allende]], Chilean-American journalist and author\n* 1942 – [[Juan Formell]], Cuban singer-songwriter and bass player ([[Los Van Van]]) (d. 2014)\n*[[1943]] – [[Herbert M. Allison]], American lieutenant and businessman (d. 2013)\n* 1943 – [[Tom Burgmeier]], American baseball player and coach\n* 1943 – [[Jon R. Cavaiani]], English-American sergeant, [[Medal of Honor]] recipient (d. 2014)\n* 1943 – [[Julia Foster]], English actress\n* 1943 – [[Rose Tremain]], English author and academic\n* 1943 – [[Max Wright]], American actor\n*[[1944]] – [[Jim Capaldi]], English drummer and songwriter ([[Traffic (band)|Traffic]]) (d. 2005)\n* 1944 – [[Nan? Vasconcelos]], Brazilian singer and [[berimbau]] player\n*[[1945]] – [[Joanna Cassidy]], American actress\n* 1945 – [[Alex Jesaulenko]], Austrian-Australian footballer and coach\n* 1945 – [[Bunker Roy]], Indian educator and activist\n* 1945 – [[Eric Simms (rugby league)|Eric Simms]], Australian rugby player and coach\n*[[1946]] – [[James Howe]], American journalist and author\n*[[1947]] – [[Massiel]], Spanish singer and actress\n* 1947 – [[Ruth Bakke]], Norwegian organist and composer\n* 1947 – [[Lawrence Wright]], American journalist, author, and screenwriter\n*[[1948]] – [[Andy Fairweather Low]], Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer ([[Fair Weather]] and [[Amen Corner (band)|Amen Corner]])\n* 1948 – [[Dennis Prager]], American radio host and author\n* 1948 – [[James Street (quarterback)|James Street]], American football and baseball player (d. 2013)\n* 1948 – [[Snoo Wilson]], English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2013)\n*[[1949]] – [[James Fallows]], American journalist and author\n* 1949 – [[Bertalan Farkas]], Hungarian general and astronaut\n*[[1950]] – [[Jussi Adler-Olsen]], Danish author and publisher\n* 1950 – [[Kathryn Harrold]], American actress\n* 1950 – [[Lance Ito]], American lawyer and judge\n* 1950 – [[Sue Rodriguez]], Canadian activist (d. 1994)\n*[[1951]] – [[Andrew Gold]], American singer-songwriter and producer ([[Wax (UK band)|Wax]]) (d. 2011)\n* 1951 – [[Steve Hillage]], English guitarist ([[Uriel (band)|Uriel]], [[Gong (band)|Gong]], [[Khan (band)|Khan]], and [[System 7 (band)|System 7]])\n* 1951 – [[Joe Lynn Turner]], American singer-songwriter and guitarist ([[Deep Purple]], [[Rainbow (rock band)|Rainbow]], [[Fandango (US band)|Fandango]], [[Brazen Abbot]], and [[Hughes Turner Project]])\n* 1951 – [[Freddie Wadling]], Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor ([[Leather Nun]] and [[Blue for Two]])\n* 1951 – [[Per Westerberg]], Swedish businessman and politician, [[Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden]]\n*[[1953]] – [[Marjo]], Canadian singer-songwriter ([[Corbeau (band)|Corbeau]])\n* 1953 – [[Donnie Munro]], Scottish singer and guitarist ([[Runrig]])\n* 1953 – [[Butch Patrick]], American actor and singer\n* 1953 – [[Anthony Seldon]], English historian and author\n*[[1954]] – [[James Charles Kopp]], American murderer\n* 1954 – [[Ken MacLeod]], Scottish blogger and author\n* 1954 – [[Sammy McIlroy]], Irish footballer and manager\n*[[1955]] – [[Caleb Carr]], American historian and author\n* 1955 – [[Tim Dunigan]], American actor\n* 1955 – [[Tony Godden]], English footballer and manager\n*[[1956]] – [[Fulvio Melia]], Italian-American physicist, astrophysicist, and author\n* 1956 – [[Isabel Pantoja]], Spanish singer and actress\n*[[1957]] – [[Farhat Basir Khan]], Indian photographer and academic\n* 1957 – [[Mojo Nixon]], American singer-songwriter \n* 1957 – [[Butch Vig]], American drummer, songwriter, and producer ([[Garbage (band)|Garbage]] and [[Spooner (band)|Spooner]])\n*[[1958]] – [[Arshad Ayub]], Indian cricketer and manager\n* 1958 – [[Sh? Hayami]], Japanese voice actor and singer\n*[[1959]] – [[Victoria Jackson]], American actress and singer\n* 1959 – [[Johnny Kemp]], Bahamian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2015)\n* 1959 – [[Apollonia Kotero]], American singer and actress ([[Apollonia 6]])\n*[[1960]] – [[Linda Fratianne]], American figure skater\n* 1960 – [[Neal Morse]], American singer and keyboard player ([[Spock\'s Beard]], [[Transatlantic (band)|Transatlantic]], [[Yellow Matter Custard]], and [[Flying Colors (band)|Flying Colors]])\n* 1960 – [[David Yow]], American singer-songwriter ([[Scratch Acid]], [[The Jesus Lizard]], and [[Qui (band)|Qui]])\n*[[1961]] – [[Cold 187um]], American rapper and producer ([[Above the Law (group)|Above the Law]])\n* 1961 – [[Pete de Freitas]], Spanish drummer and producer ([[Echo & the Bunnymen]]) (d. 1989)\n*[[1962]] – [[Lee Mavers]], English singer-songwriter and guitarist ([[The La\'s]])\n* 1962 – [[Billy Kilson]], American drummer\n* 1962 – [[Cynthia Stevenson]], Canadian actress\n*[[1963]] – [[Laura Bennett]], American architect and fashion designer\n* 1963 – [[Daniel Pelosi]], American murderer\n* 1963 – [[U?ur T?t?neker]], Turkish footballer and manager\n*[[1964]] – [[Frank Biela]], German race car driver\n* 1964 – [[Mary-Louise Parker]], American actress\n*[[1965]] – [[Joe Hockey]], Australian lawyer and politician, 38th [[Treasurer of Australia]]\n* 1965 – [[Hisanobu Watanabe]], Japanese baseball player and coach\n*[[1966]] – [[Takashi Iizuka]], Japanese wrestler\n* 1966 – [[Tim Wakefield]], American baseball player and sportscaster\n*[[1967]] – [[Aaron Krickstein]], American tennis player\n* 1967 – [[Aline Brosh McKenna]], American screenwriter and producer\n*[[1968]] – [[Stefan Effenberg]], German footballer and sportscaster\n* 1968 – [[John Stanier (drummer)|John Stanier]], American drummer ([[Helmet (band)|Helmet]], [[Tomahawk (band)|Tomahawk]], [[The Mark of Cain (band)|The Mark of Cain]], and [[Battles (band)|Battles]])\n*[[1969]] – [[Jan Axel Blomberg]], Norwegian drummer and songwriter ([[Winds (band)|Winds]], [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]], and [[Arcturus (band)|Arcturus]])\n* 1969 – [[Cedric Ceballos]], American basketball player\n* 1969 – [[Fernando Couto]], Portuguese footballer and manager\n*[[1970]] – [[Tony Amonte]], American ice hockey player and coach\n* 1970 – [[Kevin Smith]], American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1970 – [[Philo Wallace]], Barbadian cricketer\n*[[1971]] – [[Jason Bell (rugby league)|Jason Bell]], Australian rugby player\n* 1971 – [[Michael Hughes (footballer)|Michael Hughes]], Irish footballer and manager\n*[[1972]] – [[Mohamed Al-Deayea]], Saudi Arabian footballer\n* 1972 – [[Jacinda Barrett]], Australian-American model and actress\n* 1972 – [[Daniele Nardello]], Italian cyclist\n* 1972 – [[Justyna Steczkowska]], Polish singer-songwriter and actress\n*[[1973]] – [[Hiroyuki Goto]], Japanese game designer, created \'\'[[Kotoba no Puzzle: Mojipittan]]\'\'\n* 1973 – [[Danie Keulder]], Namibian cricketer\n* 1973 – [[Miguel Mendonca]], Zimbabwean journalist and author\n* 1973 – [[Susie O\'Neill]], Australian swimmer\n*[[1974]] – [[Angie Cepeda]], Colombian actress\n* 1974 – [[Phil Williams (presenter)|Phil Williams]], English journalist and radio host\n*[[1975]] – [[Mineiro (footballer)|Mineiro]], Brazilian footballer\n* 1975 – [[Xu Huaiwen]], Chinese-German badminton player and coach\n* 1975 – [[Tam?s Moln?r]], Hungarian water polo player\n* 1975 – [[Ingrid Rubio]], Spanish actress\n* 1975 – [[Michelle Thorne]], English porn actress and director\n*[[1976]] – [[Reyes Est?vez]], Spanish runner\n* 1976 – [[Jay Heaps]], American soccer player and coach \n* 1976 – [[Michael Weiss (figure skater)|Michael Weiss]], American figure skater\n* 1976 – [[Sam Worthington]], English-Australian actor and producer\n* 1976 – [[Mohammad Zahid]], Pakistani cricketer\n*[[1977]] – [[Edward Furlong]], American actor and singer\n* 1977 – [[Mark Velasquez]], American photographer\n*[[1978]] – [[Goran Gavran?i?]], Serbian footballer\n* 1978 – [[Matt Guerrier]], American baseball player\n* 1978 – [[Kazuki Namioka]], Japanese actor\n* 1978 – [[Deividas ?emberas]], Lithuanian footballer\n* 1978 – [[Dragan Vukmir]], Serbian footballer\n*[[1979]] – [[Donna Air]], English model, actress, and singer\n* 1979 – [[Marco Bonura]], Italian footballer\n* 1979 – [[Reuben Kosgei]], Kenyan runner\n*[[1980]] – [[Ivica Banovi?]], Croatian footballer\n* 1980 – [[Nadia Bjorlin]], American actress and singer\n* 1980 – [[Dingdong Dantes]], Filipino actor, singer, director, and producer\n* 1980 – [[U?ur R?fat Karlova]], Turkish comedian and actor\n*[[1981]] – [[Alexander Emelianenko]], Russian mixed martial artist and boxer\n* 1981 – [[Tim Murtagh]], English cricketer\n*[[1982]] – [[H?lder Postiga]], Portuguese footballer\n* 1982 – [[Kerry Rhodes]], American football player\n* 1982 – [[Grady Sizemore]], American baseball player\n*[[1983]] – [[Michel Bastos]], Brazilian footballer\n* 1983 – [[Nick Diaz]], American mixed martial artist and boxer\n* 1983 – [[Kim Jungah]], South Korean singer, dancer, and actress ([[After School (band)|After School]])\n*[[1984]] – [[Britt Nicole]], American singer-songwriter and producer\n* 1984 – [[Giampaolo Pazzini]], Italian footballer\n*[[1985]] – [[Stephen Ferris]], Irish rugby player\n* 1985 – [[David Hart Smith]], Canadian wrestler\n*[[1986]] – [[Mathieu Razanakolona]], Canadian skier\n*[[1987]] – [[Csilla Bors?nyi]], Hungarian tennis player\n* 1987 – [[Yura Movsisyan]], Armenian footballer\n*[[1988]] – [[Nayer]], American singer-songwriter\n* 1988 – [[Rob Kwiet]], Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1988 – [[Alice Moran]], Canadian actress and screenwriter\n*[[1989]] – [[Nacer Chadli]], Belgian footballer\n* 1989 – [[Vanes-Mari Du Toit]], South African netball player\n*[[1990]] – [[Ima Bohush]], Belarusian tennis player\n* 1990 – [[Skylar Diggins]], American basketball player\n*[[1991]] – [[Skyler Day]], American actress and singer\n* 1991 – [[Evander Kane]], Canadian ice hockey player\n*[[1992]] – [[Hallie Eisenberg]], American actress\n* 1992 – [[Eddie Generazio]], American poet and dancer\n* 1992 – [[Charli XCX]], English singer-songwriter\n*[[1993]] – [[Cassidy Gifford]], American actress\n* 1993 – [[Serhiy Nigoyan]], Ukrainian activist (d. 2014)\n*[[1994]] – [[Laura Pigossi]], Brazilian tennis player\n\n\n==Deaths==\n* [[640]] – [[Pope Severinus]]\n* [[686]] – [[Pope John V]] (b. 635)\n* [[924]] – [[?lfweard of Wessex]] (b. 904)\n*[[1100]] – [[William II of England]] (b. 1056)\n*[[1222]] – [[Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse]] (b. 1156)\n*[[1316]] – [[Louis of Burgundy]] (b. 1297)\n*[[1445]] – [[Oswald von Wolkenstein]], Austrian poet and composer (b. 1376)\n*[[1511]] – [[Andrew Barton (privateer)|Andrew Barton]], Scottish admiral (b. 1466)\n*[[1512]] – [[Alessandro Achillini]], Italian physician and philosopher (b. 1463)\n*[[1546]] – [[Peter Faber]], French priest and theologian, co-founded the [[Society of Jesus]] (b. 1506)\n*[[1589]] – [[Henry III of France]] (b. 1551)\n*[[1611]] – [[Kat? Kiyomasa]], Japanese daimyo (b. 1562)\n*[[1667]] – [[Francesco Borromini]], Swiss architect, designed [[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]] and [[Sant\'Agnese in Agone]] (b. 1599)\n*[[1696]] – [[Robert Campbell of Glenlyon]] (b. 1630)\n*[[1769]] – [[Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea]], English politician, [[Lord President of the Council]] (b. 1689)\n*[[1776]] – [[Louis Fran?ois, Prince of Conti]] (b. 1717)\n*[[1788]] – [[Thomas Gainsborough]], English painter and illustrator (b. 1727)\n*[[1815]] – [[Guillaume Brune]], French general and politician (b. 1763)\n*[[1823]] – [[Lazare Carnot]], French mathematician, general, and politician, [[President of the National Convention]] (b. 1753)\n*[[1849]] – [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]] (b. 1769)\n*[[1854]] – [[Heinrich Clauren]], German author (b. 1771)\n*[[1859]] – [[Horace Mann]], American educator and politician (b. 1796)\n*[[1876]] – [[Wild Bill Hickok]], American sheriff (b. 1837)\n*[[1889]] – [[Eduardo Guti?rrez]], Argentinian author (b. 1851)\n*[[1890]] – [[Louise-Victorine Ackermann]], French poet and author (b. 1813)\n*[[1903]] – [[Eduard Magnus Jakobson]], Estonian missionary and engraver (b. 1847)\n* 1903 – [[Edmond Nocard]], French veterinarian and microbiologist (b. 1850)\n*[[1913]] – [[Ferenc Pfaff]], Hungarian architect and academic, designed [[Zagreb Central Station]] (b. 1851)\n*[[1917]] – [[Jaan Mahlapuu]], Estonian military pilot (b. 1894) \n*[[1920]] – [[Ormer Locklear]], American pilot and actor (b. 1891)\n*[[1921]] – [[Enrico Caruso]], Italian tenor and actor (b. 1873)\n*[[1922]] – [[Alexander Graham Bell]], Scottish-Canadian engineer, invented the [[telephone]] (b. 1847)\n*[[1923]] – [[Warren G. Harding]], American journalist and politician, 29th [[President of the United States]] (b. 1865)\n*[[1929]] – [[Mae Costello]], American actress (b. 1882)\n*[[1934]] – [[Paul von Hindenburg]], German field marshal and politician, 2nd [[President of Germany]] (b. 1847)\n*[[1937]] – [[Artur Sirk]], Estonian soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1900)\n*[[1939]] – [[Harvey Spencer Lewis]], American mystic and author (b. 1883)\n*[[1943]] – [[Marika Papagika]], Greek singer (b. 1890)\n*[[1945]] – [[Pietro Mascagni]], Italian composer and educator (b. 1863)\n*[[1955]] – [[Alfred L?pine]], Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1901)\n* 1955 – [[Wallace Stevens]], American poet and academic (b. 1879)\n*[[1963]] – [[Oliver La Farge]], American anthropologist and author (b. 1901)\n*[[1967]] – [[Walter Terence Stace]], English-American epistemologist, philosopher, and academic (b. 1886)\n*[[1970]] – [[Angus MacFarlane-Grieve]], English academic, mathematician, rower, and soldier (b. 1891)\n*[[1972]] – [[Brian Cole]], American bass player ([[The Association]]) (b. 1942)\n* 1972 – [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], American psychotherapist and author (b. 1911)\n* 1972 – [[Helen Hoyt]], American poet and author (b. 1887)\n*[[1973]] – [[Jean-Pierre Melville]], French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1917)\n*[[1974]] – [[Douglas Hawkes]], English race car driver and businessman (b. 1893)\n*[[1976]] – [[L?szl? Kalm?r]], Hungarian mathematician and academic (b. 1905)\n* 1976 – [[Fritz Lang]], Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1890)\n*[[1978]] – [[Carlos Ch?vez]], Mexican composer and conductor (b. 1899)\n* 1978 – [[Antony Nogh?s]], French businessman, founded the [[Monaco Grand Prix]] (b. 1890)\n*[[1979]] – [[Thurman Munson]], American baseball player (b. 1947)\n*[[1983]] – [[James Jamerson]], American bassist ([[The Funk Brothers]]) (b. 1936)\n*[[1986]] – [[Roy Cohn]], American lawyer and politician (b. 1927)\n*[[1988]] – [[Joe Carcione]], American activist and author (b. 1914)\n* 1988 – [[Raymond Carver]], American author and poet (b. 1938)\n*[[1990]] – [[Norman Maclean]], American short story writer and essayist (b. 1902)\n* 1990 – [[Edwin Richfield]], English actor and screenwriter (b. 1921)\n*[[1992]] – [[Michel Berger]], French singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1947)\n*[[1996]] – [[Michel Debr?]], French lawyer and politician, 150th [[Prime Minister of France]] (b. 1912)\n* 1996 – [[Obdulio Varela]], Uruguayan footballer and manager (b. 1917)\n*[[1997]] – [[William S. Burroughs]], American author and painter (b. 1914)\n* 1997 – [[Fela Kuti]], Nigerian singer-songwriter and activist (b. 1938)\n*[[1998]] – [[Shari Lewis]], American television host and puppeteer (b. 1933)\n*[[2001]] – [[Ronald Townson]], American singer and actor ([[The 5th Dimension]]) (b. 1933)\n*[[2003]] – [[Don Estelle]], English actor and singer (b. 1933)\n* 2003 – [[Mike Levey]], American television host (b. 1948)\n* 2003 – [[Peter Safar]], Austrian-American physician and academic (b. 1924)\n*[[2004]] – [[Ferenc Ber?nyi]], Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1929)\n* 2004 – [[Fran?ois Craenhals]], Belgian illustrator (b. 1926)\n* 2004 – [[Heinrich Mark]], Estonian lawyer and politician, 5th [[Prime Minister of Estonia in exile]] (b. 1911)\n*[[2005]] – [[Steven Vincent]], American journalist and author (b. 1955)\n*[[2007]] – [[Chauncey Bailey]], American journalist (b. 1950)\n* 2007 – [[Holden Roberto]], Angolan politician (b. 1923)\n*[[2008]] – [[Fujio Akatsuka]], Japanese illustrator (b. 1935)\n*[[2011]] – [[Jos? Sanchis Grau]], Spanish author and illustrator (b. 1932)\n*[[2012]] – [[Gabriel Horn]], English biologist and academic (b. 1927)\n* 2012 – [[Magnus Isacsson]], Canadian director and producer (b. 1948)\n* 2012 – [[Jimmy Jones (singer)|Jimmy Jones]], American singer-songwriter (b. 1930)\n* 2012 – [[John Keegan]], English historian and journalist (b. 1934)\n* 2012 – [[Bernd Meier]], German footballer (b. 1972)\n* 2012 – [[Marguerite Piazza]], American soprano (b. 1926)\n* 2012 – [[Mihaela Ursuleasa]], Romanian pianist (b. 1978)\n*[[2013]] – [[Julius L. Chambers]], American lawyer and activist (b. 1936)\n* 2013 – [[V. Dakshinamoorthy]], Indian singer-songwriter (b. 1919)\n* 2013 – [[Richard E. Dauch]], American businessman, co-founded [[American Axle]] (b. 1942)\n* 2013 – [[Alla Kushnir]], Russian?Israeli chess player (b. 1941)\n* 2013 – [[Barbara Trentham]], American actress (b. 1944)\n* 2013 – [[Pixie Williams]], New Zealand singer (b. 1928)\n*[[2014]] – [[Ed Joyce (journalist)|Ed Joyce]], American journalist (b. 1932)\n* 2014 – [[Billie Letts]], American author and educator (b. 1938)\n* 2014 – [[Barbara Prammer]], Austrian social worker and politician (b. 1954)\n* 2014 – [[James Thompson (author)|James Thompson]], American-Finnish author (b. 1964)\n* 2014 – [[Pete van Wieren]], American sportscaster (b. 1944)\n*[[2015]] – [[Forrest Bird]], American pilot and engineer (b. 1921)\n* 2015 – [[Giovanni Conso]], Italian jurist and politician, [[Italian Minister of Justice]] (b. 1922)\n* 2015 – [[Piet Fransen]], Dutch footballer (b. 1936)\n* 2015 – [[Jack Spring]], American baseball player (b. 1933)\n\n\n==Holidays and observances==\n*[[Armed Forces of Ukraine#Military holidays|Airmobile Forces Day]] ([[Ukraine]])\n*Christian [[Calendar of saints|feast day]]:\n**[[Basil Fool for Christ]] ([[Russian Orthodox Church]])\n**[[Beatification|Blessed]] [[Justin Russolillo]]\n**[[Eusebius of Vercelli]]\n**[[Peter Faber]]\n**[[Peter Julian Eymard]]\n**[[Pope Stephen I]]\n**Our Lady of the Angels of the [[Portiuncula]] ([[Franciscan Order]])\n**[[Samuel David Ferguson]] ([[Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)|Episcopal Church]]) \n**[[August 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]\n*[[Cinema of Azerbaijan|Day of Azerbaijani cinema]] ([[Azerbaijan]])\n*[[Virgen de los Angeles|Our Lady of the Angels Day]] ([[Costa Rica]])\n*[[Armed Forces Day#Russian Federation|Paratroopers Day]] ([[Russia]])\n*[[Republic Day (Republic of Macedonia)]]\n\n==External links==\n{{commons}}\n* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/2 BBC: On This Day]\n* {{NYT On this day|month=08|day=02}}\n* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Aug&day=02 On This Day in Canada]\n\n{{months}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:August 02}}\n[[Category:Days of the year]]\n[[Category:August]]'
'Atlantic_(disambiguation)' '{{wiktionary|Atlantic}}\n\nThe \'\'\'[[Atlantic Ocean]]\'\'\' is the second largest of the world\'s oceans.\n\n\'\'\'Atlantic\'\'\' may also refer to:\n{{TOC right}}\n\n==Places==\n;in Canada\n* [[Atlantic, Nova Scotia]]\n* [[Atlantic Canada]]\n;in the United States\n* [[Atlantic, Iowa]]\n* [[Atlantic, Massachusetts]]\n* [[Atlantic, North Carolina]], an unincorporated community in eastern Carteret County\n* [[Atlantic, Pennsylvania]]\n* [[Atlantic, Seattle]], a neighborhood in Washington state\n* [[Atlantic, Virginia]]\n* [[Atlantic County, New Jersey]]\n* [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]]\n\n==In transportation==\n* The [[Atlantic 85 class lifeboat]]s serve the shores of the United Kingdom and Ireland as a part of the RNLI inshore fleet.\n* [[Austin Atlantic]], a British car produced by the Austin Motor Company from 1949 to 1952\n* [[Atlantic (1783 ship)|\'\'Atlantic\'\' (1783)]], 18th century merchant ship\n* [[Atlantic (1921 automobile)]], an obsolete automobile company\n* [[Fisker Atlantic]], a plug-in electric car\n* [[Atlantic (train)|\'\'Atlantic\'\' (train)]], a named passenger train operated by Canadian Pacific Railway and later Via Rail\n* [[Atlantic (locomotive)|\'\'Atlantic\'\' (locomotive)]], name of an early steam-powered locomotive of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad with a 0-4-0 wheel arrangement\n* Atlantic, a type of steam locomotive with a [[4-4-2 (locomotive)|4-4-2 wheel arrangement]] (UIC classification 2B1), \n* [[RMS Atlantic]], a steamship that sank off Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1873\n* [[Atlantic (yacht)|\'\'Atlantic\'\' (yacht)]], a three-masted gaff-rigged schooner\n* [[Atlantic Airways]], a Faroese airline company\n* [[Air Atlantic]], a Canadian airline\n\n==In media==\n* [[Atlantic Entertainment Group]], a defunct movie studio company\n\n* [[Atlantic (film)|\'\'Atlantic\'\' (film)]], a black and white British film\n* [[Atlantic Records]], a record company\n* [[Atlantic FM]], a radio station serving Cornwall, United Kingdom\n*\'\'[[The Atlantic]]\'\', an American magazine founded as \'\'The Atlantic Monthly\'\' in 1857\n* [[The Atlantics]], an Australian surf rock band formed in the early 1960s\n;Music\n* \"Atlantic\", a song by Thrice from \'\'[[Vheissu]]\'\'\n* [[Atlantic (song)|\"Atlantic\" (song)]], by Keane\n* \"Atlantic\", a song by Bj?rk from \'\'[[Vessel (DVD)]]\'\'\n* [[Atlantic (Theatre album)|\'\'Atlantic\'\' (Theatre album)]]\n* [[Atlantic (Dufresne album)|\'\'Atlantic\'\' (Dufresne album)]]\n* [https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCo_f3DbzSRj3EA0XgCe1aTg The Atlantic], a post-hardcore band from [[Chicago]], now known as [https://www.youtube.com/user/PAPERCITIESBAND Paper|Cities]\n\n==Companies==\n* [[Atlantic (company)]], an Italian toy manufacturer\n* [[Atlantic (supermarkets)]], a supermarket chain in Greece\n* [[Groupe Atlantic]], a French climate control engineering company\n* [[Atlantic Books]], an independent British publishing house\n* [[Atlantic Broadband]], a cable company in Massachusetts\n* [[Atlantic LNG]], a liquefied natural gas producing company based in Trinidad and Tobago\n* [[Atlantic Superstore]], a Canadian supermarket chain\n\n==Other uses==\n* [[Atlantic (period)]] of palaeoclimatology\n* [[Atlantic languages]] (formerly West Atlantic), a language family in West Africa\n* [[The Atlantic (Atlanta)]], a skyscraper in Atlanta, Georgia, United States\n* [[Atlantic (Los Angeles Metro station)]]\n* [[Atlantic (Staten Island Railway station)]]\n* [[Atlantic University]], Virginia Beach, Virginia.\n* [[Atlantic Building|Edificio Atlantic]], a condominium building in Havana, Cuba\n\n==See also==\n* [[Atlantik (disambiguation)]]\n* [[Atlantic Beach (disambiguation)]]\n* [[Atlantic Bridge (disambiguation)]]\n* [[Atlantic Championship]], developmental open-wheel racing series in North America\n* [[Atlantic Philanthropies]], a private foundation\n* [[Atlantic League of Professional Baseball]], an American professional baseball league\n\n{{disambiguation|geo}}\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Atlantic (Disambiguation)}}'
'Algebraic_number' '{{Confuse|Algebraic solution}}\n\nAn \'\'\'algebraic number\'\'\' is any [[complex number]] that is a [[root of a function|root]] of a non-zero [[polynomial]] in one variable with [[rational number|rational]] coefficients (or equivalently ? by clearing [[denominator]]s ? with [[integer]] coefficients). All [[integer]]s and [[rational number]]s are algebraic. The same is not true for [[real number|real]] and [[complex number]]s because of [[transcendental number]]s such as [[Pi|{{pi}}]] and [[e (mathematical constant)|e]]. [[Almost all]] real and complex numbers are transcendental.[See [[#Properties|Properties]].]\n\n==Examples==\n*The [[rational number]]s, expressed as the quotient of two [[integer]]s \'\'a\'\' and \'\'b\'\', \'\'b\'\' not equal to zero, satisfy the above definition because {{nowrap|1=\'\'x\'\' = \'\'a\'\'/\'\'b\'\'}} is the root of {{nowrap|\'\'bx\'\' ? \'\'a\'\'}}.[Some of the following examples come from Hardy and Wright 1972:159?160 and pp. 178?179]\n\n*The [[quadratic surd]]s (irrational roots of a quadratic polynomial {{nowrap|\'\'ax\'\'{{sup|2}} + \'\'bx\'\' + \'\'c\'\'}} with integer coefficients \'\'a\'\', \'\'b\'\', and \'\'c\'\') are algebraic numbers. If the quadratic polynomial is monic ({{nowrap|1=\'\'a\'\' = 1}}) then the roots are [[quadratic integer]]s.\n\n*The [[constructible number]]s are those numbers that can be constructed from a given unit length using straightedge and compass. These include all quadratic surds, all rational numbers, and all numbers that can be formed from these using the [[Arithmetic#Arithmetic operations|basic arithmetic operations]] and the extraction of square roots. (Note that by designating cardinal directions for 1, ?1, \'\'i\'\', and ?\'\'i\'\', complex numbers such as {{nowrap|3 + ?2\'\'i\'\'}} are considered constructible.)\n\n*Any expression formed from algebraic numbers using any combination of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of [[nth root|\'\'n\'\'th roots]] gives another algebraic number.\n\n*Polynomial roots that \'\'cannot\'\' be expressed in terms of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of \'\'n\'\'th roots (such as the roots of {{nowrap|\'\'x\'\'{{sup|5}} ? \'\'x\'\' + 1}}). This [[Abel?Ruffini theorem|happens with many]], but not all, polynomials of degree 5 or higher.\n\n*[[Gaussian integer]]s: those complex numbers {{nowrap|\'\'a\'\' + \'\'bi\'\'}} where both \'\'a\'\' and \'\'b\'\' are integers are also quadratic integers.\n\n*[[Trigonometric functions]] of [[rational number|rational]] multiples of {{pi}} (except when undefined): that is, the [[trigonometric number]]s. For example, each of {{nowrap|cos({{pi}}/7)}}, {{nowrap|cos(3{{pi}}/7)}}, {{nowrap|cos(5{{pi}}/7)}} satisfies {{nowrap|1=8\'\'x\'\'{{sup|3}} ? 4\'\'x\'\'{{sup|2}} ? 4\'\'x\'\' + 1 = 0}}. This polynomial is [[irreducible polynomial|irreducible]] over the rationals, and so these three cosines are \'\'conjugate\'\' algebraic numbers. Likewise, {{nowrap|tan(3{{pi}}/16)}}, {{nowrap|tan(7{{pi}}/16)}}, {{nowrap|tan(11{{pi}}/16)}}, {{nowrap|tan(15{{pi}}/16)}} all satisfy the irreducible polynomial {{nowrap|1=\'\'x\'\'{{sup|4}} ? 4\'\'x\'\'{{sup|3}} ? 6\'\'x\'\'{{sup|2}} + 4x + 1}}, and so are conjugate [[algebraic integers]].\n\n*Some [[irrational number]]s are algebraic and some are not:\n**The numbers {{nowrap|?2}} and {{nowrap|{{sup|3}}?3/2}} are algebraic since they are roots of polynomials {{nowrap|\'\'x\'\'{{sup|2}} ? 2}} and {{nowrap|8\'\'x\'\'{{sup|3}} ? 3}}, respectively.\n**The [[golden ratio]] \'\'φ\'\' is algebraic since it is a root of the polynomial {{nowrap|\'\'x\'\'{{sup|2}} ? \'\'x\'\' ? 1}}.\n**The numbers [[Pi|{{pi}}]] and [[e (mathematical constant)|\'\'e\'\']] are not algebraic numbers (see the [[Lindemann?Weierstrass theorem]]);[Also [[Liouville number|Liouville\'s theorem]] can be used to \"produce as many examples of transcendentals numbers as we please,\" cf Hardy and Wright p. 161ff] hence they are transcendental.\n\n=={{anchor|Degree of an algebraic number}} Properties==\n\n[[File:Algebraicszoom.png|thumb|Algebraic numbers on the [[complex plane]] colored by degree (red=1, green=2, blue=3, yellow=4)]]\n*The set of algebraic numbers is [[countable set|countable]] (enumerable).[Hardy and Wright 1972:160 / 2008:205][Niven 1956, Theorem 7.5.]\n*Hence, the set of algebraic numbers has [[Lebesgue measure]] zero (as a subset of the complex numbers), i.e. \"[[Almost everywhere|almost all]]\" complex numbers are not algebraic.\n*Given an algebraic number, there is a unique [[monic polynomial]] (with rational coefficients) of least [[degree of a polynomial|degree]] that has the number as a root. This polynomial is called its [[minimal polynomial (field theory)|minimal polynomial]]. If its minimal polynomial has degree \'\'n\'\', then the algebraic number is said to be of \'\'degree n\'\'. An algebraic number of degree 1 is a [[rational number]]. A real algebraic number of degree 2 is a [[quadratic irrational]].\n*All algebraic numbers are [[computable number|computable]] and therefore [[definable number|definable]] and [[arithmetical numbers|arithmetical]].\n*The set of real algebraic numbers is [[linearly ordered]], countable, [[densely ordered]], and without first or last element, so is [[order-isomorphic]] to the set of rational numbers.\n*For real numbers \'\'a\'\' and \'\'b\'\', the complex number \'\'a\'\' + \'\'bi\'\' is algebraic if and only if both \'\'a\'\' and \'\'b\'\' are algebraic.[Niven 1956, Corollary 7.3.]\n\n==The field of algebraic numbers==\n[[File:Algebraic number in the complex plane.png|thumb|Algebraic numbers colored by degree (blue=4, cyan=3, red=2, green=1). The unit circle is black.]]\nThe sum, difference, product and quotient (if the denominator is nonzero) of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic (this fact can be demonstrated using the [[resultant]]), and the algebraic numbers therefore form a [[field (mathematics)|field]] \'\'\'Q\'\'\' (sometimes denoted by \'\'\'A\'\'\', though this usually denotes the [[adele ring]]). Every root of a polynomial equation whose coefficients are \'\'algebraic numbers\'\' is again algebraic. This can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]]. In fact, it is the smallest algebraically closed field containing the rationals, and is therefore called the [[algebraic closure]] of the rationals.\n\nThe set of \'\'real\'\' algebraic numbers itself forms a field.[Niven 1956, p. 92.]\n\n==Related fields==\n\n===Numbers defined by radicals===\nAll numbers that can be obtained from the integers using a [[finite set|finite]] number of integer [[addition]]s, [[subtraction]]s, [[multiplication]]s, [[division (mathematics)|division]]s, and taking \'\'n\'\'th roots where \'\'n\'\' is a positive integer (i.e., [[radical expression]]s) are algebraic. The converse, however, is not true: there are algebraic numbers that cannot be obtained in this manner. All of these numbers are roots of polynomials of degree ?5. This is a result of [[Galois theory]] (see [[Quintic equation]]s and the [[Abel?Ruffini theorem]]). An example of such a number is the unique real root of the polynomial {{nowrap|\'\'x\'\'5 ? \'\'x\'\' ? 1}} (which is approximately 1.167304).\n\n===Closed-form number===\n{{Main|Closed-form number}}\nAlgebraic numbers are all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials, starting from the rational numbers. One may generalize this to \"[[closed-form number]]s\", which may be defined in various ways. Most broadly, all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials, exponentials, and logarithms are called \"elementary numbers\", and these include the algebraic numbers, plus some transcendental numbers. Most narrowly, one may consider numbers \'\'explicitly\'\' defined in terms of polynomials, exponentials, and logarithms ? this does not include all algebraic numbers, but does include some simple transcendental numbers such as \'\'e\'\' or log(2).\n\n==Algebraic integers==\n{{Main|Algebraic integer}}\n[[Image:Leadingcoeff.png|thumb|Algebraic numbers colored by leading coefficient (red signifies 1 for an algebraic integer)]]\nAn \'\'\'[[algebraic integer]]\'\'\' is an algebraic number that is a root of a polynomial with integer coefficients with leading coefficient 1 (a monic polynomial). Examples of algebraic integers are {{nowrap|5 + 13?{{overline|2}}}}, {{nowrap|2 ? 6\'\'i\'\'}}, and {{nowrap|{{sfrac|1|2}}(1 + \'\'i\'\'?{{overline|3}}).}} Note, therefore, that the algebraic integers constitute a proper [[superset]] of the [[integer]]s, as the latter are the roots of monic polynomials {{nowrap|\'\'x\'\' ? \'\'k\'\'}} for all {{nowrap|\'\'k\'\' ? \'\'\'Z\'\'\'.}} In this sense, algebraic integers are to algebraic numbers what [[integer]]s are to [[rational number]]s.\n\nThe sum, difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers, which means that the algebraic integers form a [[ring (algebra)|ring]]. The name \'\'algebraic integer\'\' comes from the fact that the only rational numbers that are algebraic integers are the integers, and because the algebraic integers in any [[algebraic number field|number field]] are in many ways analogous to the integers. If \'\'K\'\' is a number field, its [[ring of integers]] is the subring of algebraic integers in \'\'K\'\', and is frequently denoted as \'\'OK\'\'. These are the prototypical examples of [[Dedekind domain]]s.\n\n==Special classes of algebraic number==\n*[[Algebraic solution]]\n*[[Gaussian integer]]\n*[[Eisenstein integer]]\n*[[Quadratic irrational]]\n*[[Fundamental unit (number theory)|Fundamental unit]]\n*[[Root of unity]]\n*[[Gaussian period]]\n*[[Pisot?Vijayaraghavan number]]\n*[[Salem number]]\n\n==Notes==\n{{Reflist}}\n\n==References==\n*{{Citation |last=Artin |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Artin |title=Algebra |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |isbn=0-13-004763-5 |mr=1129886 |year=1991}}\n*[[G.H. Hardy|Hardy, G.H.]] and [[E.M. Wright|Wright, E.M.]] 1978, 2000 (with general index) \'\'An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers: 5th Edition\'\', Clarendon Press, Oxford UK, ISBN 0-19-853171-0\n*{{Citation |last1=Ireland |first1=Kenneth |last2=Rosen |first2=Michael |title=A Classical Introduction to Modern Number Theory |edition=Second |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |location=Berlin, New York |series=Graduate Texts in Mathematics |isbn=0-387-97329-X |mr=1070716 |year=1990 |volume=84}}\n*{{Lang Algebra}}\n*[[Ivan Niven|Niven, Ivan]] 1956. \'\'Irrational Numbers\'\', Carus Mathematical Monograph no. 11, [[Mathematical Association of America]].\n*[[?ystein Ore|Ore, ?ystein]] 1948, 1988, \'\'Number Theory and Its History\'\', Dover Publications, Inc. New York, ISBN 0-486-65620-9 (pbk.)\n\n\n{{Algebraic numbers}}\n{{Number Systems}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Algebraic Number}}\n[[Category:Algebraic numbers| ]]'
'Automorphism' 'In [[mathematics]], an \'\'\'automorphism\'\'\' is an [[isomorphism]] from a [[mathematical object]] to itself. It is, in some sense, a [[symmetry]] of the object, and a way of [[map (mathematics)|mapping]] the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphisms of an object forms a [[group (mathematics)|group]], called the \'\'\'automorphism group\'\'\'. It is, loosely speaking, the [[symmetry group]] of the object.\n\n==Definition==\nThe exact definition of an automorphism depends on the type of \"mathematical object\" in question and what, precisely, constitutes an \"isomorphism\" of that object. The most general setting in which these words have meaning is an abstract branch of mathematics called [[category theory]]. Category theory deals with abstract objects and [[morphism]]s between those objects.\n\nIn category theory, an automorphism is an [[endomorphism]] (i.e. a [[morphism]] from an object to itself) which is also an [[isomorphism]] (in the categorical sense of the word).\n\nThis is a very abstract definition since, in category theory, morphisms aren\'t necessarily functions and objects aren\'t necessarily sets. In most concrete settings, however, the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure.\n\nIn the context of [[abstract algebra]], for example, a mathematical object is an [[algebraic structure]] such as a [[group (mathematics)|group]], [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], or [[vector space]]. An isomorphism is simply a [[bijective]] [[homomorphism]]. (The definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure; see, for example: [[group homomorphism]], [[ring homomorphism]], and [[linear operator]]).\n\nThe [[identity morphism]] ([[identity mapping]]) is called the \'\'\'trivial automorphism\'\'\' in some contexts. Respectively, other (non-identity) automorphisms are called \'\'\'nontrivial automorphisms\'\'\'.\n\n==Automorphism group==\nIf the automorphisms of an object \'\'X\'\' form a set (instead of a proper [[class (set theory)|class]]), then they form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] under [[Function composition|composition]] of [[morphism]]s. This group is called the \'\'\'automorphism group\'\'\' of \'\'X\'\'. That this is indeed a group is simple to see:\n* [[Closure (binary operation)|Closure]]: composition of two endomorphisms is another endomorphism.\n* [[Associativity]]: composition of morphisms is \'\'always\'\' associative.\n* [[Identity element|Identity]]: the identity is the identity morphism from an object to itself, which exists by definition.\n* [[Inverse element|Inverses]]: by definition every isomorphism has an inverse which is also an isomorphism, and since the inverse is also an endomorphism of the same object it is an automorphism.\n\nThe automorphism group of an object \'\'X\'\' in a category \'\'C\'\' is denoted Aut\'\'C\'\'(\'\'X\'\'), or simply Aut(\'\'X\'\') if the category is clear from context.\n\n==Examples==\n* In [[set theory]], an arbitrary [[permutation]] of the elements of a set \'\'X\'\' is an automorphism. The automorphism group of \'\'X\'\' is also called the [[symmetric group]] on \'\'X\'\'.\n* In [[elementary arithmetic]], the set of [[integer]]s, \'\'\'Z\'\'\', considered as a group under addition, has a unique nontrivial automorphism: negation. Considered as a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], however, it has only the trivial automorphism. Generally speaking, negation is an automorphism of any [[abelian group]], but not of a ring or field.\n* A group automorphism is a [[group isomorphism]] from a group to itself. Informally, it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged. For every group \'\'G\'\' there is a natural group homomorphism \'\'G\'\' ? Aut(\'\'G\'\') whose [[image (mathematics)|image]] is the group Inn(\'\'G\'\') of [[inner automorphism]]s and whose [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] is the [[center (group theory)|center]] of \'\'G\'\'. Thus, if \'\'G\'\' has [[Trivial group|trivial]] center it can be embedded into its own automorphism group.[\n\n{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=kvoaoWOfqd8C&pg=PA376 |page=376 |chapter=?7.5.5 Automorphisms |title=Mathematical foundations of computational engineering |edition=Felix Pahl translation |author=PJ Pahl, R Damrath |isbn=3-540-67995-2 |year=2001 |publisher=Springer}}\n\n]\n* In [[linear algebra]], an endomorphism of a [[vector space]] \'\'V\'\' is a [[linear transformation|linear operator]] \'\'V\'\' ? \'\'V\'\'. An automorphism is an invertible linear operator on \'\'V\'\'. When the vector space is finite-dimensional, the automorphism group of \'\'V\'\' is the same as the [[general linear group]], GL(\'\'V\'\').\n* An example of an automorphism is a [[similarity transform]], which leaves the geometrical form of a figure unchanged.[Klaus Maintzer: \'\'Local activity principle: The cause of complexity and symmetry breaking\'\', Chapter 12 (pages 146?159). In: {{cite book|author1=Andrew Adamatzky|author2=Guanrong Chen|title=Chaos, CNN, Memristors and Beyond: A Festschrift for Leon ChuaWith DVD-ROM, composed by Eleonora Bilotta|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Tve6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|date=2 January 2013|publisher=World Scientific|isbn=978-981-4434-81-2|pages=149?150}}]\n* A field automorphism is a [[bijection|bijective]] [[ring homomorphism]] from a [[field (mathematics)|field]] to itself. In the cases of the [[rational number]]s (\'\'\'Q\'\'\') and the [[real number]]s (\'\'\'R\'\'\') there are no nontrivial field automorphisms. Some subfields of \'\'\'R\'\'\' have nontrivial field automorphisms, which however do not extend to all of \'\'\'R\'\'\' (because they cannot preserve the property of a number having a square root in \'\'\'R\'\'\'). In the case of the [[complex number]]s, \'\'\'C\'\'\', there is a unique nontrivial automorphism that sends \'\'\'R\'\'\' into \'\'\'R\'\'\': [[complex conjugate|complex conjugation]], but there are infinitely ([[uncountable|uncountably]]) many \"wild\" automorphisms (assuming the [[axiom of choice]]).[{{cite journal | last = Yale | first = Paul B. | journal = Mathematics Magazine | title = Automorphisms of the Complex Numbers | volume = 39 | issue = 3 |date=May 1966 | pages = 135?141 | url = http://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/Ford/PaulBYale.pdf | doi = 10.2307/2689301 | jstor = 2689301}}][{{cite |last=Lounesto |first=Pertti |year=2001 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |title=Clifford Algebras and Spinors | edition = 2nd |pages= 22?23|isbn=0-521-00551-5 }}] Field automorphisms are important to the theory of [[field extension]]s, in particular [[Galois extension]]s. In the case of a Galois extension \'\'L\'\'/\'\'K\'\' the [[subgroup]] of all automorphisms of \'\'L\'\' fixing \'\'K\'\' pointwise is called the [[Galois group]] of the extension.\n*The field \'\'\'Q\'\'\'\'\'p\'\' of p-adic numbers has no nontrivial automorphisms.\n* In [[graph theory]] an [[graph automorphism|automorphism of a graph]] is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and non-edges. In particular, if two nodes are joined by an edge, so are their images under the permutation.\n* For relations, see [[Isomorphism#A relation-preserving isomorphism|relation-preserving automorphism]].\n** In [[order theory]], see [[order automorphism]].\n* In [[geometry]], an automorphism may be called a [[motion (geometry)|motion]] of the space. Specialized terminology is also used:\n** In [[metric geometry]] an automorphism is a self-[[isometry]]. The automorphism group is also called the [[isometry group]].\n** In the category of [[Riemann surface]]s, an automorphism is a bijective [[biholomorphy|biholomorphic]] map (also called a [[conformal map]]), from a surface to itself. For example, the automorphisms of the [[Riemann sphere]] are [[M?bius transformation]]s.\n** An automorphism of a differentiable [[manifold]] \'\'M\'\' is a [[diffeomorphism]] from \'\'M\'\' to itself. The automorphism group is sometimes denoted Diff(\'\'M\'\').\n** In [[topology]], morphisms between topological spaces are called [[Continuous function (topology)|continuous maps]], and an automorphism of a topological space is a [[homeomorphism]] of the space to itself, or self-homeomorphism (see [[homeomorphism group]]). In this example it is \'\'not sufficient\'\' for a morphism to be bijective to be an isomorphism.\n\n==History==\nOne of the earliest group automorphisms (automorphism of a group, not simply a group of automorphisms of points) was given by the Irish mathematician [[William Rowan Hamilton]] in 1856, in his [[icosian calculus]], where he discovered an order two automorphism,[{{Cite journal\n|title=Memorandum respecting a new System of Roots of Unity\n|author=Sir William Rowan Hamilton\n|author-link=William Rowan Hamilton\n|url=http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Hamilton/Icosian/NewSys.pdf\n|journal=[[Philosophical Magazine]]\n|volume=12\n|year=1856\n|pages=446\n}}] writing:\nso that is a new fifth root of unity, connected with the former fifth root by relations of perfect reciprocity.
\n\n==Inner and outer automorphisms==\nIn some categories?notably [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], and [[Lie algebra]]s?it is possible to separate automorphisms into two types, called \"inner\" and \"outer\" automorphisms.\n\nIn the case of groups, the [[inner automorphism]]s are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself. For each element \'\'a\'\' of a group \'\'G\'\', conjugation by \'\'a\'\' is the operation {{nowrap|\'\'?\'\'\'\'a\'\' : \'\'G\'\' ? \'\'G\'\'}} given by {{nowrap|1=\'\'?\'\'\'\'a\'\'(\'\'g\'\') = \'\'aga\'\'?1}} (or \'\'a\'\'?1\'\'ga\'\'; usage varies). One can easily check that conjugation by \'\'a\'\' is a group automorphism. The inner automorphisms form a [[normal subgroup]] of Aut(\'\'G\'\'), denoted by Inn(\'\'G\'\'); this is called [[Goursat\'s lemma]].\n\nThe other automorphisms are called [[outer automorphism]]s. The [[quotient group]] {{nowrap|Aut(\'\'G\'\') / Inn(\'\'G\'\')}} is usually denoted by Out(\'\'G\'\'); the non-trivial elements are the cosets that contain the outer automorphisms.\n\nThe same definition holds in any [[unital algebra|unital]] [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] or [[algebra over a field|algebra]] where \'\'a\'\' is any [[Unit (ring theory)|invertible element]]. For [[Lie algebra]]s the definition is slightly different.\n\n==See also==\n* [[Endomorphism ring]]\n* [[Antiautomorphism]]\n* [[Frobenius automorphism]]\n* [[Morphism]]\n* [[Characteristic subgroup]]\n\n==References==\n\n\n\n==External links==\n* [http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Automorphism \'\'Automorphism\'\' at Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]\n* {{MathWorld | urlname=Automorphism | title = Automorphism}}\n\n[[Category:Morphisms]]\n[[Category:Abstract algebra]]\n[[Category:Symmetry]]'
'Algebraic_number' '{{maths rating|class=C|importance=high|field=number theory}}\n\n==Easy==\nThis is a subject where it is easy to give examples- like sqrt(2) etc. Let me be the first to suggest this. And also what are \'\'\'not\'\'\' algrebraic numbers, i.e. transcendental numbers. I see there is an entry for this. Nevertheless, you could mention them on the algebraic number page and link. RoseParks\n\n----\n\nI\'ve added some. -- [[User:Jan Hidders|Jan Hidders]]----\nLookin good...RoseParks\n\n==Not algebraic==\n\nWhat do you call numbers which can be obtained from the integers by a finite series of additions, multiplications, divisions and root extractions? I know they are not algebraic numbers, since solutions to polynomials of degree five or higher cannot be obtained in this way, and yet they are by definition algebraic numbers. -- [[User:Simon J Kissane|Simon J Kissane]]\n\nAn equation whose roots are numbers of the form you describe is said to be \"solvable by radicals\". My guess would be that the class of numbers would be the \"radical expressions\" or something, but I don\'t know. -- Carl Witty\n\nI\'ve been asking professors and others the same question and I suggest calling them solvable numbers. It\'s clearly a subfield. Richard Peterson\n\n==Definition==\n\nLooking at [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AlgebraicInteger.html MathWorld - Algebraic Integer], I think there might be something wrong with the definition of algebraic integers here.\n\n:[[User:Qz|QZ]] 13:55, 2004 Mar 19 (UTC)\n\nDon\'t see it. [[User:Charles Matthews|Charles Matthews]] 15:26, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)\n\nI think you need to say that the coefficients are all integers. Otherwise, I can say 2/3 is an algebraic integer, because it\'s a solution of 1*x - 2/3 = 0, which is a monic polynomial. Not entirely sure, so not changed. [[User:Jonpin|Jonpin]] 08:26, Oct 1, 2004 (UTC)\n\nWell, it says all the \'\'a\'\'i are integers at the top of the page; still applies. [[User:Charles Matthews|Charles Matthews]] 18:37, 1 Oct 2004 (UTC)\n\nIt doesn\'t anymore; it was changed on 4 Oct 2004. --[[User:RRM|RRM]] 06:43, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)\n\n== [[User:LinkBot/suggestions/Algebraic_number|Link suggestions]] ==\n\nAn [[User:LinkBot|automated Wikipedia link suggester]] has some possible wiki link suggestions for the [[Algebraic_number]] article, and they have been placed on [[User:LinkBot/suggestions/Algebraic_number|this page]] for your convenience.
\'\'Tip:\'\' Some people find it helpful if these suggestions are shown on this talk page, rather than on another page. To do this, just add {{User:LinkBot/suggestions/Algebraic_number}} to this page. — [[User:LinkBot|LinkBot]] 01:01, 18 Dec 2004 (UTC)\n\nI added the links that made sense. [[User:Edward|Edward]] 00:24, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)\n\n== Ring of Integers redirect ==\n\n\n\"Ring of Integers\" currently redirects to this article, but I\'m going to move it so it redirects to [[Ring (mathematics)]], which I consider a more suitable target. --[[User:Malcohol|Malcohol]] 09:49, 8 Jun 2005 (UTC)\n\n== p-adic algebraic numbers ==\n\nWhile I think it\'s important to point out that p-adic numbers can also be algebraic, I\'m a bit concerned if we don\'t specify precisely what an \"algebraic number\" is when no field is specified. For instance, statements like \"the algebraic numbers form a field\" or \"the algebraic numbers are countable\" are false if we leave it open like that. Also, many other pages that link here and describe properties of algebraic numbers would have to be qualified, since many of these statements don\'t work for p-adic algebraic numbers.\n\nI\'ll try to do something about this issue, but other suggestions are welcome. [[User:AxelBoldt|AxelBoldt]] 18:56, 14 May 2006 (UTC)\n\n:As far as I can think of the term \"algebraic number\" is reserved for a root of a polynomial with coefficients in the rationals. The p-adic numbers are not \'\'algebraic\'\', specifically because they are obtained by the \'\'analytic\'\' process of \'\'completing\'\' the rational numbers. One can speak of elements that are algebraic over a p-adic number field, but then one enters the more general concept of [[algebraic element]]s. For this reason, I will modify the introduction of this article, I\'ll also make some changes to the rest. [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] 20:50, 22 December 2006 (UTC)\n\n::No, that\'s not right. The algebraic closure of the rationals in the p-adic field is quite large. All those numbers are algebraic. There is no essential difference, abstractly, between those numbers and the algebraic closure of the rationals in the complex numbers. [[User:Charles Matthews|Charles Matthews]] 22:53, 22 December 2006 (UTC)\n\n:::Ah I see, I thought it was being said that the p-adic numbers were algebraic, but what was pointed out was that certain p-adic numbers are algebraic. Actually, any field of characteristic zero contains the rationals, so perhaps I shall replace \"complex number\" in the definition with something more general. Something like an algebraic number is a root of a polynomial over the rationals, it is often taken in the complex numbers but can be in any field of charateristic zero. Does that sound good? [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] 00:53, 23 December 2006 (UTC)\n\n\n:::: Yes, this is a very important point, both theoretically and computationally. The definition needs to be changed, and I prefer to just leave it as a root of a polynomial, without reference to any particular field that the root lives in. \n\n:::: An algebraic number can always be viewed as a number in some algebraically closure of the rational numbers, and all of these closures are isomorphic fields. However, there is no canonical description of such a closure. Any such closure can be viewed as embedded in the complex numbers, but again, there is no canonical way to view this embedding. Thus, an algebraic number can generally be thought of as a complex number, but not in a canonical way, and in general it is just an element of some algebraic closure of the rationals.\n\n:::: Since all algebraic closures are isomorphic, this may seem like a trivial point, but it\'s not. It plays a serious role in trying to write computational number theory programs. For instance, viewing the rational numbers as embedded in the complexes in the usual way, the roots of x3 ? 2 can be thought of as the real number \\sqrt[3]{2} and the two non-real roots \\zeta \\sqrt[3]{2}, \\zeta^2 \\sqrt[3]{2}, where ? is a cube root of unity. Here, one intuitively sees a huge distinction between the three roots -- the first is real, and the second two aren\'t. However, this distinction is an artifact of having fixed the complex numbers as an algebraically closed field containing the rationals, and having an intuitive feel for the distinction between real and non-real numbers.\n\n:::: To work with these numbers algebraically in a computer, you cannot ahead of time \"explain\" the intuitive notion of the complex numbers to the computer ahead of time, and then allow it to work with algebraic numbers of arbitrarily large degree by working within this field (at least, as far as I know no one can do this). Instead, all you tell the computer is that you are working with a root of x3 ? 2. Not only does the computer have no way to distinguish between the three roots from this description, there is no way for the computer to single out an algebraically closed field containing these roots.\n\n:::: Avoiding thinking of algebraic numbers as living in the complex numbers with a particular embedding is also important for theoretical reasons. Doing this is sort of like \"fixing a basis\" for a vector space when you don\'t have to -- working in a coordinate-free manner can often be important.\n\n:::: The above discussion is rather technical, from the point of view of someone who doesn\'t know much or anything about algebraic numbers and wants to learn from this page. To avoid much confusion, especially in the first sentence of the page, how about just referring to the algebraic number as a root of a polynomial. Discussion of what field to view this number in can be deferred until later in the article, at least not in the introduction. Any thoughts ?Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:B2smith|B2smith]] ([[User talk:B2smith|talk]] ? [[Special:Contributions/B2smith|contribs]]) 18:20, 7 December 2008 (UTC) \n\n... An irrational number may or may not be algebraic. For example ... 31/3/2 (half the cube root of 3) are algebraic because they are the solutions of ... 8x3 ? 3 = 0, ... \nIs this right? Not 2x3 - 3 = 0 ?\n: No the article states it correctly, since\n:: x = (3/8)1/3 = 31/3/2\n\n\n---\nPlease, can some expert clarify \"Numbers defined by radicals\" Section? Specially the part about n>=5 ---Thanks, AlfC\n---\n\n== Examles ==\nIn the examples section on this page, the statement is made that \"an irrational number may or may not be algebraic\". Examples of the positive are given, but no counter-examples. Could ? be such a conter-example? I think it is, but for the life of me I cannot proove it.\n\nI think a counter-example has to be given to clarify the statement, if someone has one (with proof) please add it. Thanks [[User:Payxystaxna|payxystaxna]] 15:42, 23 November 2006 (UTC)\n\n== If Infinity an algebraic number? ==\n\nIt would seem so from the article, as 1?0 gives infinity. Worth spelling out? [[User:Quota|quota]] 09:50, 12 February 2007 (UTC)\n\n1/0 does not give infinity.\n--[[Special:Contributions/176.199.192.165|176.199.192.165]] ([[User talk:176.199.192.165|talk]]) 04:57, 23 January 2016 (UTC)\n\n:Reread the definition: algebraic numbers are complex numbers. Infinity is not a complex number, so it can\'t be an algebraic number. --[[User:Zundark|Zundark]] 13:01, 12 February 2007 (UTC)\n\n::A better answer perhaps is simply that infinity is not a root of a polynomial. It could be said to be a solution to 1/x=0 (for example in the context of the [[Riemann sphere]]), but 1/x is not a polynomial. [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] 04:26, 3 May 2007 (UTC)\n\n==Contradiction between [[Algebraic numbers]] and [[Transcendental number]]==\nThe article [[Transcendental number]] states that \n\nIn mathematics, a transcendental number is a real or complex number which is not algebraic, i.e., not a solution of a non-zero polynomial equation with \'\'\'integer\'\'\' coefficients.\n
\n\nwhereas in the article [[Algebraic numbers]] the following is stated:\n\nIn mathematics, an algebraic number is a complex number that is an algebraic element over the rational numbers. In other words, an algebraic number is a root of a non-zero polynomial with \'\'\'rational (or equivalently, integer)\'\'\' coefficients.\n
\n\nIs it only integer coefficients or rational coefficients? [[User:Hakeem.gadi|Hakeem.gadi]] 09:27, 10 April 2007 (UTC)\n\n::It makes no difference, since you can change the rationals to integers without changing the roots of the polynomial (just multiply through by the lowest common denominator). --[[User:Zundark|Zundark]] 10:04, 10 April 2007 (UTC)\n\n:::Except it does make a difference, in the context of what\'s written on the page now. It says that if there exists a monic polynomial of degree 1 with x as a root, then that\'s equivalent to x being rational. That\'s true if the coefficients of the polynomial are rational, but obviously false if the coefficients are integer.[[User:24.91.135.162|24.91.135.162]] 23:03, 28 May 2007 (UTC)\n\n::::Yes, the minimal polynomial is defined to be a polynomial over \'\'\'Q\'\'\', not \'\'\'Z\'\'\', since we want it to be monic. I\'ve edited the article to make this clearer. There may be other places in the article where such clarification is needed - my comment above is only about the definition of algebraic numbers. --[[User:Zundark|Zundark]] 08:59, 29 May 2007 (UTC)\n\n== Non-zero ==\n\nI don\'t understand the qualification that it must be a \'\'non-zero\'\' polynomial. What is a \'\'zero\'\' polynomial? What would be (wrongly) included in the definition of an algebraic number if this qualifier were dropped? What does it exclude? --[[User:DavidConrad|DavidConrad]] 19:48, 31 July 2007 (UTC)\n\n:The zero polynomial is 0. Every complex number is a zero of this polynomial. --[[User:Zundark|Zundark]] 20:07, 31 July 2007 (UTC)\n\n== \"Constant\" or \"real number\"? ==\n\nI changed \"The real numbers and are not algebraic numbers\" to \"The constants and are not algebraic numbers\" and was reverted by with summary \'\'\"real numbers\" is preferable to \"constants\", this is math, not physics.\'\'. The [[pi]] and [[e (mathematical constant)]] articles begin with \"Pi or ? is a mathematical constant and a transcendental (and therefore irrational) real number...\" and \"The mathematical constant e is the unique real number such that...\", so I can see a case for both. Opinions? ?[[User:Mets501|METS501]] ([[User talk:Mets501|talk]]) 14:31, 3 August 2007 (UTC)\n\n:Hi, I\'m the one that reverted it back to real number. I guess I read the change and was sort of surprised to read that. Perhaps the article on algebraic numbers is the one where I would least want pi and e to be called constants since the article discusses in some sense what numbers actually are. That the articles for pi and e refer to them as mathematical constants, I am definitely fine with since people will be looking up those definitions with all sorts of various fields in mind. However, I feel that in this case, pi and e are mentioned halfway through an article on what is definitely pure math (and where no functions are mentioned), and thus within the scope of this article I would rather refer to them as real numbers. Even more specifically, the section that they are mentioned in have a clear sentence pattern rational->irrational->complex->real that seems odd with constant instead of real. But yes I would like to see some discussion on this, as I actually don\'t know anything about what wikipedia thinks of the scope (and context) of referring to things. Sorry if my revert may have surprised you, I was quite happy with your cleanup, though. [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] 19:09, 3 August 2007 (UTC)\n\n::I\'ve a preference for \'\'the real number , ...\'\' as it emphasise the fact that there exist real numbers which are not algebraic. --[[User:Salix alba|Salix alba]] ([[User talk:Salix alba|talk]]) 19:37, 3 August 2007 (UTC)\n::OK, no problem. ?[[User:Mets501|METS501]] ([[User talk:Mets501|talk]]) 20:19, 4 August 2007 (UTC)\n:::Technically a constant is an atomic name (e.g. \"\" but not \"\") for a specific value. The truly pedantic usage is as in \"the real number is 3.14…\" as distinct from \"the constant \'\' has value 3.14….\" The reasoning is that with the quotes you\'re speaking about the name, without them the value of the name. In practice hardly anyone observes this nicety, and quotes that should have been there are routinely dropped. That everyone is used to this makes \"constant\" tolerable when referring to a specific value by its atomic name.\n:::That said, this particular bit of pedantry comes at negligible cost (three extra characters), whence there is no excuse for Wikipedia to be sloppy; it should use \"real number\" here. (Incidentally variables are also atomic names, but not of a specific value, and hence do not qualify as constants. All this is equally applicable to [[Boolean algebra]] and other systems of nonnumeric values.) --[[User:Vaughan Pratt|Vaughan Pratt]] ([[User talk:Vaughan Pratt|talk]]) 20:50, 21 December 2008 (UTC)\n\n== Holding place to develop notion of \"representation of numbers by decimals\" ==\n> Given an algebraic number a0xn + a1xn-1 + a2xn-2+ ... + an-1*x1 + an = 0\n\nIt is quite possible for certain ordered collections of coefficients (a0,a1,a2,...an-1,an) that an x satisfying the equality will be a positive whole number, and every coefficient will be less than x. For example:\n: 7*x3 + 3*x2 + 9*x1 - 7390 = 0 is statisfied by x = 10, i.e. the collection of four coefficients (7, 3, 9, 5) is less than 10, and 10 satisfies the equation \n:(a) 7*103 + 3*102 + 9*101 + 5 - 7390+5 = 0\n \nAny number whatever, given an unbounded sequence of digits (if required), can be expressed as an algebraic number with an \'\'integer part\'\' and a \'\'fractional part\'\'.\n\nA rigorous treatment requires the notion of whole numbers (counting numbers, more accurately) as tally marks (such as would be generated by repeated appliction of the [[successor function]]), and a process of \"division\" as defined by e.g. the accumulation in place called Q of the number of successive subtractions of a divisor D until the numerator N (minuend) is less than or equal to the divisor (subtrahend) D; at this point what is left of the numerator N -D -D ... -D = R is defined as the \'\'remainder\'\' (or residue) and placed in a place called R:\n\n*Start: (given N, number to be divided, D the divisor, Q is the quotient, R is the residue)\n*1 empty quotient Q ;i.e. 0 => Q\n*2 IF N N\n*4 increment Q\n*5 goto step 2\n*6 copy N to R\n*7 HALT\n\nThis presupposes that \"subtaction\" and \"less than\" have defintions. But for this we will assume that they do (as [[primitive recursive function]]s.)\n\n \n\nThe first version is customarily written as: M -S*Q -R =0 the tally-count of S-subtractions is Q.\n\nExample: 7395 tally marks in N, divisor is 10 ( |||||||||| tally marks, for instance):\nAfter 739 subtractions of 10 tally marks, Q will have 739 tally marks in it, and R will have 5 leftovers in it.\n \nTo do a full conversion of a number of unknown \"size\", the process must repeat until the \'\'quotient\'\' Q is less than the divisor D. This requires that we \"index\" our residues R0, R1, R2, ... Rn.\n\nPer our example, the first round starts with 7395 counts, divides these into [Q] = 739 groups of 10 with a residue of 5, so R0 = 5.\n\nThis process can proceed again with the quotient 739, and again with 73, and again using 7, until at last the computation arrives at the quotient Q less than the divisor D: 7 < 10.\n\nAs before, start with 7395 tally marks in the place called \"N\" (numerator)\n: N = 7395 => Q \n:*First division of N=173 by D=10 yields (Quotient, Remainder) = (Q, R) = (739, 5). Put \"5\" (5 tally marks) into place called \"R0\".\n::Move the quotient [Q] = 739 into N\n:*Second division of N=739 by D=10 yields (Q, R) = (73, 9). Put \"9\" into place called R1.\n::Move the quotient [Q]=73 into N \n:*Third division of N=73 by D=10 yields (Q, R) = (7, 3). Put \"3\" into place called R2.\n::Move the quotient [Q]=7 into N\n:*Fourth division of N=7 by D=10 yields (Q, R) = (0, 7). The algorithm escapes the loop. Put \"7\" into place called R3\n:: HALT\n\nList as an ordered-tuple (R0,R1,R2,R3) = (5,9,3,7). These are the coefficients written backwards, i.e. we can rewrite as follows:\n: R3*103 + R2*102 + R1*101 + R0*100 - N = 0\n: a0*103 + a1*102 + a2*101 + a3*100 - N = 0\n\n[?? doesn\'t look right]] This can be derived from the general form: Nn+1 - D*(Qn - Rn) - Rn+1 = 0, i.e.\n: Q0 = 0, and N1 - D*(Q0 - R0) - R1 = 0 \n\nExample: \n:*7 -0*10 -7 = 0; \n:*73 -10*(0*10 -7) -3 =0\n:*739 -10*(10*(0*10 -7) -3) -9 =0\n:*7395 -10*(10*(10*(0*10 -7) -3) -9) -5 =0\n:*7395 -10*10*10*7 -10*10*3 -10*9 -5 = 0 or 7395 - 103*7 - 102*3 -101*9 -5 = 0 \n\n>We reduce any finite number (i.e. one that we can write) to its \"mantissa\" (basically a string of digits and a decimal point) times its base\" to a integer-power in either one of two ways:\n: 1234567.890123456789 = .1234567890123456789 *107\n: 1234567.890123456789 = 1234567890123456789. *10-12\n\n> Theorem 135 p. 111 in Hardy and Wright to the effect that any positive number ? can be expressed as \"a decimal\" that extends infinitely to the right. This number will have an \"integer part\" (customarily written to the left of a \"decimal point\") and a \"fractional part\" (customarily written to the right of the decimal point).\n\n> Any postive, whole-number divisor D > 1, aka \"base\" can be used (even non-whole numbers could be used -- these represent \"unit measures\" repeatedly subtracted from \"the pile\" [??]) \n\nwvbailey [[User:Wvbailey|Wvbailey]] 21:30, 16 October 2007 (UTC)\n\n== The new definition ==\n\nI don\'t really like how the definition in the introductory paragraph has changed. Using the fuzzy term \"number\" is really not preferable. One can\'t say that numbers that aren\'t algebraic are transcendental, for example, is aleph_0 transcendental? Also, the writing is cumbersome, with all the parenthetical remarks. I intend on putting the old definition back, and editing many of the recent additions to make the writing style less cumbersome. [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] 08:06, 14 October 2007 (UTC)\n\n:You\'re just messing with something that comes verbatim from a quoted source. What I recommend you do is try to improve what\'s there. Cf Hardy and Wright. I will just revert your reversion unless you provide sources. aleph_0 is not a number, it\'s a 2nd order concept. Bill [[User:Wvbailey|Wvbailey]] 16:28, 14 October 2007 (UTC)\n\n::Hardy and Wright was written 70 years ago, it will thus phrase things in ways that aren\'t as good as more recent books. I simply intend on replacing the definition with what it was, and include a reference which actually has that definition verbatim, coincidently. My comment related to aleph_0 is about internal consistency, the wiki article on \"Number\" mentions all sorts of numbers, such as cardinals. The fact is, you came to this article and made major changes (to things that, in my opinion, didn\'t need them) without discussing the changes first. Thus the changes are being discussed afterwards. [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] 19:06, 14 October 2007 (UTC)\n\nRE: your perceived ownership of this article: Read [[Wikipedia:Be bold]].\n\nRE: lead paragraph: This is from the [[transcendental number]] article:\n: In [[mathematics]], a \'\'\'transcendental number\'\'\' is a [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] number which is not [[algebraic number|algebraic]], that is, not a solution of a non-zero [[polynomial]] equation, with [[rational number|rational]] [[coefficient]]s.\n\nBill [[User:Wvbailey|Wvbailey]] 20:21, 16 October 2007 (UTC)\n\n:I in no way feel that I own this article, and I believe in the \"be bold\" credo, but if one is bold one must expect people to disagree. I\'ve expressed my disagreement with the replacement of the term \"complex number\" with just the term \"number\". I could\'ve easily just reverted your change, but because I do not feel entitled to run this article, I decided to post a discussion about it instead. Basically, your editing of the lead paragraph is essentially the following two actions: 1. replace \"complex number\" with \"number\", and 2. replace \"with rational coefficients (or equivalently integer coefficients)\" with \"with integer coefficients\". I disagree with these changes and strongly disagree with the first one. You have simply taken away information. Can you tell me what was wrong with the lead paragraph before? [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] 04:43, 17 October 2007 (UTC)\n\n== Cantor etc. ==\n\nI removed \"The fact that most numbers, indeed almost all, are \"transcendental\" is proven by use of the Cantor [[diagonal method]].[Hardy and Wright 1972:160]\". \"\'\'Almost all\'\'\" in math means \"\'\'all but a finite number\'\'\", and clearly there are infinitely many rational numbers and infinitely many algebraic numbers. Moreover, Cantor\'s Diagonal Method proves that the set of the rational numbers is aleph 0, i.e. the same order as the set of the integers. It says nothing about irrational algebraic numbers, e.g. square roots. --[[User:Sky Diva|Sky Diva]] 23:11, 1 December 2007 (UTC)\n\n:While the term [[almost all]] can be used in that sense, it is also frequently used in the sense of [[almost everywhere]], that is, something is true for \"almost all\" cases if the exceptions form a set of [[null set|measure zero]].\n:[[Cantor\'s diagonal argument]] does not show that anything is countable. It proves that a set is uncountable. You may be thinking of the argument that the rationals are countable which works by arranging them into a square grid and following diagonals. In contrast, the diagonal argument shows that the set \'\'\'N\'\'\'\'\'\'N\'\'\' of sequences of natural numbers is uncountable by assuming for contradiction that the sequences can be enumerated as the list\n::\'\'?\'\'0, \'\'?\'\'1, \'\'?\'\'2, ?\n:and constructing a sequence \'\'?\'\' = (\'\'?\'\'\'\'i\'\' + 1)\'\'i\'\' which differs from the \'\'i\'\'th sequence in the \'\'i\'\'th place (i.e., on the \"diagonal\" you\'d see if you were to write out all these sequences). Since \'\'?\'\' differs from every \'\'?\'\'\'\'i\'\', it cannot appear anywhere in the list, giving the desired contradiction.\n:I don\'t see anything that prevents the diagonal argument from being used to show that there are uncountably many transcendental numbers. After all, it can be used to show that there are uncountably many [[complex number]]s, and it is straightforward to prove that the [[algebraic closure]] of the rationals is countable. [[User:Michael Slone|Michael Slone]] ([[User talk:Michael Slone|talk]]) 01:35, 2 December 2007 (UTC)\n\n::Firstly, the example that was removed was followed by an explicit reference. Looking up that reference, one can see the proof given that indeed uses Cantor diagonalization (in one of its standard uses that shows that the reals are uncountable; having previously shown the algebraic numbers are countable, the result follows). [[Almost all]] means for all but a set of measure zero; in the case of [[counting measure]], this is indeed \"all but finitely many\", but for the standard [[Lebesgue measure]] on \'\'\'R\'\'\', other \"bigger\" sets have measure zero (e.g. any countable set, or the [[Cantor set]]), and looking up [[almost all]] on wiki gives this definition. I\'m undoing the edit. Thanks for your concern, but please be more careful next time. [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] 05:13, 2 December 2007 (UTC)\n\n{{reflist-talk}}\n\n== Decimal representation ==\n\nI think I read somewhere that the [[decimal representation]] (or in another base) of an irrational real [[algebraic number]] would look like a [[random]] sequence of digits (bits, trits, whatever). This would immediately imply that numbers like 0.1010010001... and the non-rational elements of the [[Cantor set]] are transcendent. Is this true? If so, where is the source? [[User:Albmont|Albmont]] ([[User talk:Albmont|talk]]) 16:37, 6 July 2009 (UTC)\n\n:According to the [[normal number]] article, this is merely a conjecture. --[[User:Zundark|Zundark]] ([[User talk:Zundark|talk]]) 16:53, 6 July 2009 (UTC)\n\n== Hunted down by my mathematical trauma again == \nI love mathematics, I honestly do, I just wish someone would go through the effort of explaining it exhaustively. Take for instance the first example of an algebraic number on this page. x=a/b=sqrt(bx-a), which always adds up to sqrt(0)=a/b which is nonsense. And there\'s nothing which would have prevented me from making this mistake it seems. ?Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/145.18.26.117|145.18.26.117]] ([[User talk:145.18.26.117|talk]]) 15:36, 12 May 2010 (UTC) \n\n:It is not the square root of \'\'bx\'\' − \'\'a\'\'. \'\'a\'\'/\'\'b\'\' is a [[root of a function|root]] of the polynomial \'\'f\'\'(\'\'x\'\') = \'\'bx\'\' − \'\'a\'\', i.e. a number \'\'r\'\' such that \'\'f\'\'(\'\'r\'\') = 0. [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] ([[User talk:RobHar|talk]]) 17:26, 13 May 2010 (UTC)\n\n==Radical==\nNowhere in the section \"Numbers defined by radicals\" does the term radical appear. Isn\'t that odd? [[Special:Contributions/82.75.140.46|82.75.140.46]] ([[User talk:82.75.140.46|talk]]) 08:35, 7 February 2011 (UTC)\n\n==2 recent reversions==\n\nHi, RobHar. You\'ve reverted two of my recent edits, and I\'d like to discuss them. \n\nFirst, you\'ve reverted \n\n:\'\'an \'\'\'algebraic number\'\'\' is a complex number, real or non-real,...\'\'\n\nto\n\n:\'\'an \'\'\'algebraic number\'\'\' is a number...\'\'\n\nThe purpose of my edit is that the non-mathematician reader who does not know about this will probably interpret \"a number\" as referring to a real number. You say (if I understand you correctly) that keeping it purposely vague is good because it avoids making it too specific; but I think that the effect on the typical reader is going to be just the opposite -- making it seem more specific (real numbers only) than it is intended to be.\n\nSecond, you\'ve reverted \n\n:\'\'...a [[root of a function|root]] of a non-zero [[polynomial]] in one variable with [[rational number|rational]] coefficients. Since polynomials with rational coefficients can be multiplied through by the lowest common multiple of the rational coefficients to get a polynomial with integer coefficients but having the same roots, this definition can also be restated to specify that the polynomial has [[integer]] coefficients.\'\'\n\nto the original shorter version\n\n:\'\'...a [[root of a function|root]] of a non-zero [[polynomial]] in one variable with [[rational number|rational]] coefficients (or equivalently [[integer]] coefficients).\'\'\n\nsaying it\'s \'\'unnecessary in lede to expound upon equivalence of rational/integer coeffs\'\'. The problem here is that the original wording is bound to be baffling to a reader who doesn\'t know this material, leading the reader to wonder \"Well, which is it, rational coefficients or integer coefficients -- I thought rational and integer coefficients were not synonyms.\" Can we come up with a wording that is both non-baffling and non-wordy? How about this?:\n\n:\'\'...a [[root of a function|root]] of a non-zero [[polynomial]] in one variable with [[rational number|rational]] coefficients, and therefore also the root of such a polynomial with [[integer]] coefficients.\'\'\n\n[[User:Duoduoduo|Duoduoduo]] ([[User talk:Duoduoduo|talk]]) 21:55, 7 January 2012 (UTC)\n\n:Hi, Duoduoduo. Regarding the first reversion: I guess my opinion is that when the typical reader sees \"number\" they will think \"number\", whereas if they see \"complex number\" they will think \"oh, this is complicated\". In some sense, the laymam has an intuitive notion of numbers, and while it\'s true that that intuition likely does not consider complex numbers, it is also not really thinking of real numbers in the way that you and I think of them. I think it\'s worth pointing out that not all algebraic (complex) numbers are real, but I don\'t think it\'s necessary to do so in the first sentence of the article.\n\n:Regarding the second reversion: I\'d just like to keep parenthetical comments out of the lede. One option is to include your explanation as a footnote. I think I\'d rather remove any mention of integer coefficients in the lede than expound upon why the two are equivalent in the main text of the lede.\n\n:Best, [[User:RobHar|RobHar]] ([[User talk:RobHar|talk]]) 22:14, 7 January 2012 (UTC)\n\n::Hi Duoduoduo and RobHar. Thanks for working on this very good article, and I\'d like to add my opinion to your conversation. \n\n::1st revert: 3Duo says \"...the non-mathematician reader who does not know about this will probably interpret \"a number\" as referring to a real number.\" Well, I certainly do, so I go along with 3Duo: you should mention that complex numbers are meant. Instead of 3Duos \"...a complex number, real or non-real, ...\" I suggest \"real or complex number\" - seems simpler to me, and isn\'t this common usage?\n\n::2nd revert: I find 3Duos sentence \"Since polynomials ...\" fine, but RobHar also has a point about parenthetical comments in the lede. The current version (or equivalently ? by clearing denominators ? with integer coefficients) is an excellent compromise: the added \"by clearing denominators\" is absolutely necessary.\n\n::3Duo is right to keep the general reader in mind. May be not grandma, since she won\'t come here anyway, but scientists and engineers (to be) in general. \n\n::Keep up the good work. --[[User:Herbmuell|Herbmuell]] ([[User talk:Herbmuell|talk]]) 12:56, 25 January 2015 (UTC) \n\n== Interpreting the drawing ==\n\nIt isn\'t clear (to me at last) what that drawings are supposed to ilustrate.\nIs it supposed the drawing represent the complex numbers and the colored ones are the algebraic? How was it generated, has anyone the algorithm? ? Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/186.22.168.237|186.22.168.237]] ([[User talk:186.22.168.237|talk]]) 18:45, 25 October 2012 (UTC) \n\n:Click on the drawings for a more detailed description. They were presumably generated by iterating through low-order polynomials with integer coefficients and obtaining their roots. It\'s not clear to me that the article should be clarified in this respect, but if you have some concrete suggestions in this regard you could raise them here. ? [[User_talk:Quondum|\'\'Quondum\'\']] 05:11, 26 October 2012 (UTC)\n\nThe fact that the previous image used different sizes for differents points somewhat confused me, so I made a new image representing the algebraic numbers. It\'s ugglier than the previous, but I hope it helps. ? Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Arathron|Arathron]] ([[User talk:Arathron|talk]] ? [[Special:Contributions/Arathron|contribs]]) 06:56, 27 October 2012 (UTC) \n\n== Subfields ==\n\n{{ping|Nxavar}} Note our definition of [[Field extension#Definition|subfield]]:\nLet \'\'L\'\' be a [[Field (mathematics)|field]]. A \'\'\'subfield\'\'\' of \'\'L\'\' is a [[subset]] \'\'K\'\' of \'\'L\'\' that is [[Closure (mathematics)|closed]] under the field operations of \'\'L\'\' and under taking inverses in \'\'L\'\'. In other words, \'\'K\'\' is a field with respect to the field operations inherited from \'\'L\'\'.
\nThe [[algebraic numbers]] are a subfield of the [[complex numbers]]; we need not verify the field axioms. ? [[User:Arthur Rubin|Arthur Rubin]] [[User talk:Arthur Rubin|(talk)]] 16:49, 27 January 2016 (UTC)\n::The problem is that it is not mentioned that the complex numbers are a field, which makes the argument incomplete. [[User:Nxavar|Nxavar]] ([[User talk:Nxavar|talk]]) 08:40, 28 January 2016 (UTC)'
'Accordion' '{{other uses}}\n{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}\n{{Infobox instrument\n|name=Accordion\n|names=* [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: \'\'????????\'\'\n* [[Basque language|Basque]]: \'\'Soinu handia, eskusoinua\'\'\n*[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]: \'\'Harmonika\'\'\n* [[Catalan language|Catalonian]]: \'\'Acordi?\'\'\n* [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: \'\'Harmonika\'\'\n* [[Danish language|Danish]] ([[free-bass system|free-bass]]): \'\'Accordeon\'\'\n* [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: \'\'Accordeon\'\'\n* [[Finnish language|Finnish]]: \'\'Harmonikka\'\' \n* [[French language|French]]: \'\'Accord?on\'\'\n* [[Georgian language|Georgian]]: \'\'?????????\'\'\n* [[German language|German]]: \'\'Akkordeon\'\'\n* [[Greek language|Greek]]: \'\'?????????\'\'\n* [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] & [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: \'\'Harmonika\'\' \n* [[Italian language|Italian]]: \'\'Fisarmonica\'\'\n* [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: \'\'Tefukin\'\'\n*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: \"Akordeonas\"\n* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: \'\'Trekkspill\'\'\n* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: \'\'Acorde?o\'\' or \'\'Sanfona\'\'\n* [[Romanian language|Romanian]]: \'\'Acordeon\'\'\n* [[Russian language|Russian]]: \'\'[[Bayan (accordion)|Bajan]]\'\'\n* [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: \'\'?????????\'\'\n* [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]: \'\'Harmonika\'\'\n* [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: \'\'Acorde?n\'\'\n* [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: \'\'Dragspel[Dyremose, Jeanette & Lars, \'\'Det levende b?lgspil\'\' (2003), p.132 - Origin of the instrument\'s name and native names in Danish, French, German, Italian and Russian]\n* [[Turkish language|Turkish]] & [[Polish language|Polish]]: \'\'Akordeon\'\'\n|image=A convertor free-bass piano-accordion and a Russian bayan.jpg\n|caption=A [[piano accordion]] (top) and a [[Russia]]n [[Bayan (accordion)|bayan]] (bottom)\n|background=keyboard\n|hornbostel_sachs=412.132\n|hornbostel_sachs_desc=[[Free reed aerophone|Free-reed]] [[aerophone]]\n|developed=Early 19th century\n|range=Depends on configuration:\n\'\'\'Right-hand manual\'\'\'\n* [[Chromatic button accordion]]\n* [[Diatonic button accordion]]\n* [[Piano accordion]]\n\n\'\'\'Left-hand manual\'\'\'\n*[[Stradella bass system]]\n*[[Free-bass system]]\n|related=\n\'\'\'Hand-pumped:\'\'\'\n[[Bandoneon]], [[Concertina]], [[Flutina]], [[Garmon]], [[Trikitixa]], [[Pump organ#Harmonium|Indian harmonium]]\n\n\'\'\'Foot-pumped:\'\'\'\n[[Pump organ|Harmonium]], [[Reed organ]]\n\n\'\'\'Mouth-blown:\'\'\'\n[[Claviola]], [[Melodica]], [[Harmonica]], Laotian [[Khene]], Chinese [[Sheng (instrument)|Sh?ng]], Japanese [[Sh? (instrument)|Sh?]]\n\n\'\'\'Electronic reedless instruments:\'\'\'\n[[Electronium]], [[MIDI accordion]], [[Roland Virtual Accordion]]\n|musicians=Accordionists ([[list of accordionists]]).\n|builders=\n|midi=021/022
023/024 ([[Bandone?n|Tango Accordion]])\n|articles=Accordion, [[Chromatic button accordion]], [[Bayan (accordion)|Bayan]], [[Diatonic button accordion]], [[Piano accordion]], [[Stradella bass system]], [[Free-bass system]], [[Accordion reed ranks & switches]]\n}}\n[[File:Dominguinhos de Morais.jpg|thumb|The Brazilian [[Forr?]] Accordionist [[Dominguinhos]]]]\n\n\'\'\'Accordions\'\'\' (from 19th-century German \'\'Akkordeon\'\', from \'\'Akkord\'\' - \"musical chord, concord of sounds\"[\'\'\'[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?allowed_in_frame=0&search=accordion&searchmode=none accordion]\'\'\', entry in [[Online Etymology Dictionary]]]) are a family of box-shaped [[musical instrument]]s of the [[bellows]]-driven [[free reed aerophone|free-reed aerophone]] type, colloquially referred to as a [[squeezebox]]. A person who plays the accordion is called an \'\'accordionist\'\'. The [[concertina]] and [[Bandoneon|bandone?n]] are related; the [[harmonium]] and [[American reed organ]] are in the same family.\n\nThe instrument is played by compressing or expanding the bellows while pressing buttons or [[Musical keyboard|keys]], causing [[valve]]s, called \'\'pallets\'\', to open, which allow air to flow across strips of brass or steel, called \'\'[[reed (instrument)|reeds]]\'\', that vibrate to produce sound inside the body.[For the accordion\'s place among the families of musical instruments, see Henry Doktorski\'s [http://www.ksanti.net/free-reed/description/taxonomy.html \'\'Taxonomy of Musical Instruments\'\' (\'\'The Classical Free-Reed, Inc.\'\')] Also on this page is Diarmuid Pigott\'s \'\'The Free-Reed Family of Aerophones\'\'] The performer normally plays the melody on buttons or keys on the right-hand [[manual (music)|manual]], and the [[accompaniment]], consisting of bass and pre-set chord buttons, on the left-hand manual. \n\nThe accordion is widely spread across the world. In some countries (for example [[Brazil]],[{{cite web|url=http://blognejo.com.br/blognejo-informa/top-five-os-maiores-sanfoneiros-da-musica-sertaneja-atual|title=TOP FIVE ? OS MAIORES SANFONEIROS DA M?SICA SERTANEJA ATUAL - Blognejo|publisher=}}][{{cite web|url=http://divirta-se.uai.com.br/app/noticia/musica/2013/05/22/noticia_musica,142451/o-dono-da-festa.shtml|title=Novo disco de Michel Tel? junta sanfona, m?sica sertaneja, eletr?nica e ritmos dan?antes|work=Divirta-se - Tudo sobre entretenimento, cinema, shows, celebridades e promo??es}}] [[Colombia]] and [[Mexico]]) it is used in popular music (for example [[Forr?]], [[M?sica sertaneja|Sertanejo]] and B-Pop in [[Brazil]]), whereas in other regions (such as [[Europe]], [[North America]] and other countries in [[South America]]) it tends to be more used for [[dance-pop]] and [[folk music]] and as well as in regional and is often used in [[folk music]] in [[Europe]], [[North America]] and [[South America]]. Nevertheless, in Europe and North America, [[Accordion#Use in popular music|some popular music acts]] also make use of the instrument. Additionally, the accordion is also used in [[Cajun music|cajun]], [[zydeco]], [[jazz music]] and in both solo and orchestra performances of [[classical music]].\nThe [[piano accordion]] is the official city instrument of [[San Francisco]], [[California]].[{{cite news|title=City Makes Accordion San Francisco\'s Official Instrument|url=http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1990/City-Makes-Accordion-San-Francisco-s-Official-Instrument/id-376dd5a7b608f64b18abf834aaafc0fd|accessdate=24 December 2015|agency=Associated Press|publisher=Associated Press|date=24 April 1990}}]\n\nThe oldest name for this group of instruments is \'\'harmonika\'\', from the Greek \'\'harmonikos\'\', meaning \'\'harmonic, musical\'\'. Today, native versions of the name \'\'accordion\'\' are more common. These names refer to the type of accordion [[Accordion#History|patented by Cyrill Demian]], which concerned \"automatically coupled chords on the bass side\".[Dyremose, Jeanette & Lars, \'\'Det levende b?lgspil\'\' (2003), p.133]\n\n== Construction ==\n[[File:Spirk.ogg|thumb|right|A [[diatonic button accordion]] being played.]]\nAccordions have many configurations and types. What may be technically possible to do with one accordion could be impossible with another:\n* Some accordions are \'\'bisonoric\'\', producing different [[pitch (music)|pitches]] depending on the direction of bellows movement\n* Others are \'\'unisonoric\'\' and produce the same pitch in both directions. The pitch also depends on its size\n* Some use a [[chromatic]] buttonboard for the right-hand manual\n* Others use a [[diatonic]] buttonboard for the right-hand manual\n* Yet others use a [[piano]]-style [[musical keyboard]] for the right-hand manual\n* Some can play in different [[register (music)|registers]]\n* Craftsmen and technicians may tune the same registers differently, \"personalizing\" the end result, such as an [[organ (instrument)|organ]] technician might [[voicing (music)|voice]] a particular instrument\n\n=== Universal components ===\n\n==== Bellows ====\n{{Listen\n|filename=AccordionBellowsSounds.ogg\n|title=Accordion bellows controlled sounds\n|description=A sample of effects that can be achieved with the bellows - 949 KB\n|format=[[Ogg]]}}\nThe [[bellows]] is the most recognizable part of the instrument, and the primary means of [[articulation (music)|articulation]]. Similar to a [[violin]]\'s bow, the production of sound in an accordion is in direct proportion to the motion of the player. The bellows is located between the right- and left-hand manuals, and is made from [[pleat]]ed layers of cloth and cardboard, with added leather and metal.[[http://1accordion.net/bellows.htm How To Repair Bellows] Ike\'s Accordion] It is used to create pressure and vacuum, driving air across the internal [[reed (instrument)|reeds]] and producing sound by their vibration, applied pressure increasing the volume.\n\nThe keyboard touch is not [[keyboard expression|expressive]] and does not affect [[Dynamics (music)|dynamics]]: all expression is effected through the bellows: some bellows effects as illustrated below:\n# Bellows used for volume control/fade\n# Repeated change of direction (\"bellows shake\"), which has been popularized by [[Luiz Gonzaga]][[http://www.almanaquebrasil.com.br/personalidades-musica/6505-luiz-gonzaga.html]] and is extensively used in [[Forr?]] and called \"resfulengo\" in Brazil.\n# Constant bellows motion while applying pressure at intervals\n# Constant bellows motion to produce clear tones with no resonance\n# Using the bellows with the silent air button gives the sound of air moving, which is sometimes used in contemporary compositions particularly for this instrument\n\n==== Body ====\nThe accordion\'s body consists of two wood boxes joined together by the bellows. These boxes house reed chambers for the right- and left-hand manuals, respectively. Each side has [[grille]]s in order to facilitate the transmission of air in and out of the instrument, and to allow the [[sound]] to better project. The grille for the right-hand manual is usually larger and is often shaped for decorative purposes. The right-hand manual is normally used for playing the melody and the left-hand manual for playing the accompaniment, however skilled players can reverse these roles.[[[Guido Deiro]] claimed he was the first accordionist to play a solo with the left hand: \'\'Sharpshooter\'s March\'\' (1908) Guido Deiro, \'\'Guido Deiro\'s Own Story of Sharpshooters March\'\', \'\'The Pietro Musicordion\'\', Volume 6, Number 2 (May?June 1948)]\n\nThe size and weight of an accordion varies depending on its type, layout and playing range, which can be as small as to have only one or two rows of basses and a single [[octave]] on the right-hand manual, to the standard 120-bass accordion and through to large and heavy 160-bass free-bass converter models.\n\n==== Pallet mechanism ====\nThe accordion is an [[aerophone]]. The manual mechanism of the instrument either enables the air flow, or disables it:[Illustration made with reference from a similar illustration that can be found in both \'\'Det levende b?lgspil\'\' (p. 9) by Jeanette & Lars Dyremose (2003), and \'\'Harmonikaens historie\'\' (p. 35a) by Bjarne Glenstrup (1972, The University of Copenhagen, Faculty of Music)]\n\n[[File:Accordion button mechanism.svg|750px|thumb|center|An illustration of the pallet mechanism in Piano Accordions. As the key is pressed down the pallet is lifted, allowing for air to enter the tone chamber in either direction and excite the reeds; air flow direction depends on the direction of bellows movement. Note that this is a side view of a piano accordion keyboard, so a similar effective mechanical pallet movement is used for buttons, both on button accordions and bass mechanisms, including the Stradella \'\'machine\'\']]\n\n=== Variable components ===\nThere is a wide range of instruments that are called \'\'accordion\'\'. The different types have varying components. All instruments have reed ranks of some format. Not all have switches. The most typical accordion is the piano accordion, which is used for many musical genres. Another type of accordion is the button accordion, which is used in several musical traditions, including Cajun, Conjunto and [[Tejano music]], Swiss and Austro-German Alpine music, Argentinian tango music and many other folk genres.\n\n==== Right-hand manual systems ====\n[[File:PianoAccordeon.jpg|166px|right|thumb|A [[Weltmeister]] piano accordion]]\nDifferent systems exist for the right-hand manual of an accordion, which is normally used for playing the melody. Some use a [[button (control)|button]] layout arranged in one way or another, while others use a [[piano]]-style keyboard. Each system has different claimed benefits[{{cite web|url=http://home.swipnet.se/nydana/accordiontest.pdf|author=Dan Lindgren |title=Piano Accordion vs. Chromatic Button Accordion|archive-url=http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090318050921/http://home.swipnet.se/nydana/accordiontest.pdf |archive-date=18 March 2009}}] by those who prefer it. They are also used to define one accordion or another as a different \"type\":\n* [[Chromatic button accordion]]s and the [[bayan (accordion)|bayan]], a [[Russia]]n variant, use a buttonboard where notes are arranged [[chromatic]]ally. Two major systems exist, referred to as the B-system and the C-system (there are also regional variants.)\n* [[Diatonic button accordion]]s use a buttonboard designed around the notes of [[diatonic scales]] in a small number of keys. The keys are often arranged in one row for each key available. Chromatic scales may be available by combining notes from different rows. The adjective \"diatonic\" is also commonly used to describe bisonic or bisonoric accordions?that is, instruments whose right-hand-manual (and in some instances even bass) keys each sound two different notes depending on the direction of the bellows (for instance, producing major triad sequences while closing the bellows and dominant seventh or 7-9 while opening). Such is the case, for instance, with the Argentinian [[bandoneon]], the Austro-German [[steirische Harmonika]], the Italian [[organetto]], the Swiss [[Schwyzer?rgeli]] and the [[Anglo concertina]]. \n* [[Piano accordion]]s use a [[musical keyboard]] similar to a [[piano]], at right angles to the cabinet, the tops of the keys inward toward the bellows\n* [[6-plus-6-instruments|6-plus-6]] accordions use a buttonboard with three rows of buttons in a \'uniform\' or \'whole-tone\' arrangement. The chromatic scale consists of two rows. The third row is a repetition of the first row. So there is the same fingering in all twelve scales. These accordions are produced only in special editions e. g. the \'logicordion\' produced by [[VEB Klingenthaler Harmonikawerke|HARMONA]].\n\n==== Left-hand manual systems ====\n[[File:120-button Stradella chart.svg|thumb|right|250px|Typical 120-button Stradella bass system. This is the left-hand manual system found on most unisonoric accordions today]]\nDifferent systems are also in use for the left-hand manual, which is normally used for playing the accompaniment. These almost always use distinct bass buttons and often have buttons with concavities or studs to help the player navigate the layout despite not being able to see the buttons while playing. There are three general categories:\n* The [[Stradella bass system]], also called \'\'standard bass\'\', is arranged in a [[circle of fifths]] and uses single buttons for [[chord (music)|chords]]\n* The [[Belgian bass system]] is a variation used in [[Belgium|Belgian]] chromatic accordions. It is also arranged in a circle of fifths but in reverse order. This system has 3 rows of basses, 3 rows of chord buttons allowing easier fingering for playing melodies, combined chords, better use of fingers 1 and 5, and more space between the buttons. This system was poorly traded outside of native Belgium\n* Various [[free-bass system]]s for greater access to playing melodies on the left-hand manual and to forming one\'s own chords. These are often chosen for playing [[jazz]] and [[classical music]]. Some models can convert between free-bass and Stradella bass; this is called \"converter bass\".\n\n==== Reed banks and switches ====\n{{main|Accordion reed banks and switches}}\n[[File:reedsinset.jpg|166px|thumb|right|Accordion [[Accordion reed banks and switches|reed ranks]] with closeup of reeds]]\n\nInside the accordion are the reeds that generate the instrument tones. These are organized in different sounding \'\'banks\'\', which can be further combined into \'\'registers\'\' producing differing \'\'[[timbre]]s\'\'. All but the smaller accordions are equipped with switches that control which combination of reed banks operate, organized from high to low [[register (music)|registers]]. Each register stop produces a separate sound timbre. See the [[accordion reed banks and switches]] article for further explanation and audio samples.\n\nAll but the smallest accordions usually have treble switches. The larger and more expensive accordions often also have bass switches.\n\n==== Classification of chromatic and piano type accordions ====\nIn describing/pricing an accordion, the first factor is size, expressed in number of keys on either side. For a piano type, this could for one example be 37/96, meaning 37 keys (3 octaves plus one note) on the treble side and 96 bass keys. After size, the price and weight of an accordion is largely dependent on the number of reed ranks on either side, either on a [[Accordion reed ranks and switches#Cassotto|cassotto]] or not, and to a lesser degree on the number of combinations available through register switches. Typically, these could be announced as \'\'\'Reeds: 5 + 3\'\'\', meaning five reeds on the treble side and three on the bass, and \'\'\'Registers: 13 + M, 7\'\'\', meaning 13 register buttons on the treble side plus a special \"master\" that activates all ranks, like the \"tutti\" on an organ, and seven register switches on the bass side.\n[[File:Quito Accordion player.jpg|thumb|Accordion player in a street in the historic centre of [[Quito]], [[Ecuador]].]]\n\n==== Straps ====\nThe larger piano and chromatic button accordions are usually heavier than other smaller [[squeezebox]]es, and are equipped with two shoulder [[straps]] to make it easier to balance the weight and increase bellows control while sitting, and avoid dropping the instrument while standing.\n\nOther accordions, such as the [[diatonic button accordion]], have only a single shoulder strap and a right hand thumb strap. All accordions have a (mostly adjustable) leather strap on the left-hand manual to keep the player\'s hand in position while drawing the bellows. There are also straps above and below the bellows to keep it securely closed when the instrument is not playing.\n\n=== Unusual accordions ===\n[[File:Busking Accordionist.jpg|166px|right|thumb|Garmon player]]\nVarious hybrid accordions have been created between instruments of different buttonboards and actions. Many remain curiosities ? only a few have remained in use:\n*The [[Schrammel accordion]], used in [[Vienna|Viennese]] [[chamber music]] and [[klezmer]], which has the treble buttonboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass buttonboard, similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion\n*The [[schwyzer?rgeli]] or [[Switzerland|Swiss]] organ, which usually has a 3-row diatonic treble and 18 unisonoric bass buttons in a bass/chord arrangement ? a subset of the Stradella system in reverse order like the Belgian bass ? that travel parallel to the bellows motion\n*The [[trikitixa]] of the [[Basque people]] has a two-row diatonic, bisonoric treble and a 12-button diatonic unisonoric bass\n*In Scotland, the favoured diatonic accordion is the instrument known as the [[British Chromatic Accordion]]. While the right hand is bisonoric, the left hand follows the Stradella system. The elite form of this instrument is generally considered the German manufactured Shand Morino, produced by [[Hohner]] with the input of [[Jimmy Shand|Sir Jimmy Shand]][p.98, Howard, Rob (2003) \'\'An A to Z of the Accordion and related instruments\'\' Stockport: Robaccord Publications ISBN 978-0-9546711-0-5]\n*{{ill|pl|Pedal harmony|Harmonia peda?owa}}, a type of accordion used sometimes in Polish folk music, has a pair of [[pump organ]]-like bellows attached.\n\n== History ==\n{{See also|Free reed aerophone#History|l1=History of free reed aerophones}}\n{{Expand section|date=May 2009}}\nThe accordion is a free reed instrument and is in the same family as other instruments such as the [[Sheng (instrument)|sheng]] and [[khaen]]. The sheng and khaen are both much older than the accordion and this type of reed did inspire the kind of free reeds in use in the accordion as we know it today.\n\n[[File:8 key accordion.JPG|250px|right|thumb|8-key bisonoric diatonic accordion (c. 1830)]]\n\nThe accordion\'s basic form is believed to have been invented in [[Berlin]] in 1822 by [[Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann]],[There is not a single document to back up this belief, Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann was 16 years old at that time and we do have some handwriting of C.F. Buschschmann and his Father, but without any related notice within. First time of mentioned a aeoline was in a writing dated 1829.]{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}} although one instrument has been recently discovered that appears to have been built earlier.[This is the accordion owned by Fredrik Dillner of Sweden, which has the name F. L?hner [[N?rnberg]] engraved (stamped) on it. The instrument was given to Johannes Dillner in 1830 or earlier][[http://www.ksanti.net/free-reed/essays/dillner_interview.html Interview With Fredrik Dillner - The Owner Of What May Be The World\'s Oldest Accordion] The Free-Reed Journal, 22 June 2006][M?ller, Mette & Lisbet Torp (red.) Musikkens tjenere. Forsker, Instrument, Musiker - Musikhistorisk Museums 100 ?rs Jubil?umsskrift 1998, 297 s., indb rigt illustreret ISBN 978-87-7289-466-9 Serie: Meddelelser fra Musikhistorisk Museum og Carl Claudius Samling ISSN 0900-2111]\n\n[[File:Dillner-accordion.jpg|thumb|Zitat Dillner Akkordeon]]\n\nThe earliest history of the accordion in Russia is poorly documented. Nevertheless, according to Russian researchers, the earliest known simple accordions were made in [[Tula, Russia]] by [[:ru:????????, ??????? ?????????|Timofey Vorontsov]] from 1820, and [[:ru:?????, ???? ????????????|Ivan Sizov]] from 1830.[Mirek, Alfred. \'\'Garmonika. Proshloe i nastoiashchee. Nauchno-istoricheskaia entsyklopedicheskaia kniga.\'\' Moscow, 1994. p.50] By the late 1840s, the instrument was already very widespread;[\'\'[http://publ.lib.ru/ARCHIVES/__Raritetnye_knigi/IRGO_Etnograficheskij_sbornik_02_1854.pdf Etnograficheskii sbornik Russkogo geograficheskogo obshchestva.\'\' Vol.2], Saint Petersburg, 1854. p.26, 162.\'\'] together the factories of the two masters were producing 10,000 instruments a year. By 1866, over 50,000 instruments were being produced yearly by Tula and neighbouring villages, and by 1874 the yearly production rate was over 700,000.[Mirek, Alfred. \'\'Iz istorii akkordeona i baiana.\'\' Moscow, 1967. p.43-45] By the 1860s, [[Novgorod Governorate|Novgorod]], [[Vyatka Governorate|Vyatka]] and [[Saratov Governorate|Saratov]] Governorates also had significant accordion production. By the 1880s, the list included [[Oryol Governorate|Oryol]], [[Ryazan Governorate|Ryazan]], [[Moscow Governorate|Moscow]], [[Tver Governorate|Tver]], [[Vologda Governorate|Vologda]], [[Kostroma Governorate|Kostroma]], [[Nizhny Novgorod Governorate|Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Simbirsk Governorate|Simbirsk]] and others, and many of these places created their own varieties of the instrument.[Banin A.A. \'\'Russkaia instrumentalnaia muzyka folklornoi traditsii\'\'. Moscow, 1997. (p.144)]\n\nThe accordion is one of several European inventions of the early 19th century that used free reeds driven by a bellows. An instrument called \'\'accordion\'\' was first patented in 1829 by [[Cyrill Demian]], of Armenian origin, in [[Vienna]][A summary and pictures of this patent can be found at [http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20090619162610/http://www.ksanti.net/free-reed/history/demian.html www.ksanti.net/free-reed/history/demian.html] (Version of 20 Okt 4 - 19 Jun 09 Using Way Back Machine to Display:\nThe Classical Free-Reed, Inc.)]\n\nDemian\'s instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments. It only had a left hand buttonboard, with the right hand simply operating the bellows. One key feature for which Demian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key. His instrument also could sound two different chords with the same key; one for each bellows direction (a \'\'bisonoric\'\' action).\n\nThe piano accordion was first played in German-speaking regions, and then spread over Europe. Some early portable instrument with piano keys had been invented in 1821, but it started to actually be played much later, and built its reputation from there.\n\nAt that time in Vienna, mouth harmonicas with \'\'Kanzellen\'\' (chambers) had already been available for many years, along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows. The [[diatonic]] key arrangement was also already in use on mouth-blown instruments. Demian\'s patent thus covered an accompanying instrument: an accordion played with the left hand, opposite to the way that contemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played, small and light enough for travelers to take with them and used to accompany singing. The patent also described instruments with both [[Bass (sound)|bass]] and [[Wiktionary|treble]] sections, although Demian preferred the bass-only instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages.[German Text: \"Mit den Dekel des Balges, l??t sich das ganze Instrument verdoppeln, so da? man dadurch die Accorde vermehrt, oder auch mit einzelne T?ne spielen kann, in diesem Fall, mu? ein zweyter Einsatz mit Federn, und auch eine 2te Claviatur dazu kommen, der Blasebalg bleibt in der Mitte, jede Hand dirigirt abwechselnd, entweder die Claves, oder den Balg. Durch eine obengenannte Verdoplung des Instruments oder durch Vermehrung der Accorde, w?rde niemand etwas verbessern, oder was neues liefern, weil nur die Bestandtheile dadurch vermehrt, das Instrument theurer und schwerer wird.\"\nTranslation of this snip: With the Cover of the bellows the instrument can be duplicated, so the amount of Chords or single notes can be enlarged, or one can sound single notes, in this case, a second part with springs (free reeds) and also a second keyboard must be added, the bellows are in between these two parts, both hands push buttons and push and pull the bellows at the same time or alternatively. Through this doubling or increasing of chords within the instrument nothing new is invented or improved by someone else, because only the amount of similar parts is increased and the Instrument is heavier and more expensive.[http://www.akkordeon-online.de/instrum/demian.htm German full text]]\n\nBy 1831 at least the accordion had appeared in Britain.[\'\'The Times\'\', Thursday, 3 March 1831; pg. 7; Issue 14477; col C :?POPULAR JOURNAL of MUSIC ? On the 1st. Of March, price 2s., the third number, for 1831, of the HARMONICON. Contents. Musical Literature: - 1. Memoirs of Dr. Callcott ? 2. Rodolphe Kreutzer- 3. On the Accordion and Symphonion...?] The instrument was noted in \'\'The Times\'\' of that year as one new to British audiences[The Times, Thursday 9 June 1831; pg. 5; Issue 14560; col A: (Review of a performance by a flautist, [[Johann Sedlatzek|Mr. Sedlatzek]]) \"At the close of the concert Mr. Sedlatzek performed on a new instrument called the Accordion or Aeolian, which, however, has little beside its novelty to recommend it.\"] and not favourably reviewed, but nevertheless it soon became popular.[\'\'The Times\'\', Wednesday, 26 April 1837; pg. 5; Issue 16400; col C : ?GREAT CONCERT-ROOM ? KING?S THEATRE...There was also a novelty in the shape of an instrument called ?a concertina,? an improvement on the accordion, which has been such a favourite musical toy for the last two or three years.\"] It had also become popular with New Yorkers by the mid-1840s at the latest.[\'\'New York Times\'\', 19 May 1907:- \'The Lay of the Last of the Old Minstrels: Interesting Reminiscences of Isaac Odell, Who Was A Burnt Cork Artist Sixty Years Ago\': ?While we were drawing big crowds to the Palmer House on Chambers Street Charley White was making a great hit playing an accordion in Thalia Hall on Grand Street. In those days\"(i.e. mid-1840s) \"accordions were the real attraction to the public.\"]\n\nAfter Demian\'s invention, other accordions appeared, some featuring only the righthanded keyboard for playing melodies. It took English inventor Charles Wheatstone to squeeze both chords and keyboard together in one squeezebox. His 1844 patent for what he called a ?concertina? also featured the ability to easily tune the reeds from the outside with a simple tool.\n\n[[File:Accordionschule1.JPG|thumb|right|166px|The first pages in Adolph M?ller\'s accordion book]]\nThe musician Adolph M?ller described a great variety of instruments in his 1833 book, \'\'Schule f?r Accordion\'\'. At the time, [[Vienna]] and [[London]] had a close musical relationship, with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year, so it is possible that Wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his key-arrangement ideas into practice.\n\nJeune\'s [[flutina]] resembles Wheatstone\'s [[concertina]] in internal construction and [[tone color]], but it appears to complement Demian\'s accordion functionally. The flutina is a one-sided bisonoric melody-only instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows is operated with the left. When the two instruments are combined, the result is quite similar to [[diatonic]] button accordions still manufactured today.\n\nFurther innovations followed and continue to the present. Various buttonboard and keyboard systems have been developed, as well as voicings (the combination of multiple tones at different octaves), with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance, and different methods of internal construction to improve tone, stability and durability.\n\n== Use in various music genres ==\n{{main|Accordion music genres}}\nThe accordion has traditionally been used to perform folk or [[ethnic music]], popular music, and transcriptions from the operatic and light-classical music repertoire.[Henry Doktorski, CD booklet notes for \"[[Guido Deiro]]: Complete Recorded Works, Vol. 1,\" [[Archeophone Records]] (2007)] Today the instrument is sometimes heard in contemporary pop styles, such as rock, pop-rock, etc.,[Sometimes in modern pop music the accordion is not actually played, but its sound is heard by use of a MIDI instrument and sampled sound module.] and occasionally even in serious classical music concerts, as well as advertisements.\n\n=== Use in traditional music ===\n{{main|Accordion music genres#Use in traditional music|l1=Accordion in traditional music}}\n\nInvented in 1829, its popularity spread rapidly: it has mostly been associated with the common people, and was spread by Europeans who emigrated around the world. The accordion in both button and piano forms became a favorite of folk musicians[Christoph Wagner, \"A Brief History of How the Accordion Changed the World,\" CD booklet notes for Planet Squeezebox, performed by various artists, (Roslyn, New York: Ellipsis Arts, 1995), 6] and has been integrated into [[traditional music]] styles all over the world: see the [[list of music styles that incorporate the accordion]].\n\n[[File:Italian Button Accordion QM r.jpg|thumb|This is a button key accordion made by the company Marrazza in Italy. It was brought by Italian immigrants to Australia as a reminder of their homeland.]]\n\n=== Use in popular music ===\n{{main|Accordion music genres#Use in popular music|l1=Use in popular music}}\n{{See also|list of popular music acts that incorporate the accordion}}\n{{Listen\n|title=New York Blues\n|filename=Pietro Frosini - New York Blues (1916) - hiss reduced.ogg\n|description=A 1916 recording of \"New York Blues\" composed and performed by [[Pietro Frosini]], one of the first major stars of the accordion.\n}}\nThe accordion appeared in [[popular music]] from the 1900s-1960s. This half century is often called the \"Golden Age of the Accordion\".{{citation needed|date = December 2013}} Five players, [[Pietro Frosini]], the two brothers Count [[Guido Deiro]] and [[Pietro Deiro]] and two Slovenian brothers Vilko Ovsenik and [[Slavko Avsenik]], were major influences at this time.{{citation needed|date = December 2013}}\n\nMost [[Vaudeville]] theaters closed during the [[Great Depression]], but accordionists during the 1930s-1950s taught and performed for [[radio]]. During the 1950s through the 1980s the accordion received significant exposure on television with performances by [[Myron Floren]] on \'\'[[The Lawrence Welk Show]]\'\'.[Myron Floren and Randee Floren, \'\'Accordion Man\'\', with a forward by Lawrence Welk (The Stephen Greene Press, Brattleboro, Vermont: 1981)] In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the accordion declined in popularity.{{citation needed|date = December 2013}}\n[[File:Antonia Begonia on Accordion.JPG|250px|right|thumb|A folk accordionist 2009]]\n\nIn [[popular music]], it is now generally considered exotic or old-fashioned to include the accordion, especially in music for advertisements.{{citation needed|date = December 2013}} Some popular acts do use the instrument in their distinctive sounds. A notable example is [[Grammy Award|Grammy Award winning]] [[Parody music|parodist]] [[\"Weird Al\" Yankovic]], who plays the accordion on many of his musical tracks, particularly his [[polka]]s. Yankovic was trained in the accordion as a child.[{{cite book|last1=Graff|first1=Gary|last2=Durchholz|first2=Daniel|title=Rock \'n\' Roll Myths: The True Stories Behind the Most Infamous Legends|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JWlSUYbiUXUC&pg=PT152|year=2012|publisher=MBI Publishing Company|isbn=978-1-61058-571-2|page=152}}]\n\n=== Use in classical music ===\n{{Main|Accordion music genres#Use in classical music|l1=Accordion in classical music}}\n\nAlthough best known as a folk instrument, it has grown in popularity among classical composers. The earliest surviving concert piece is \'\'{{lang|fr|Th?me vari? tr?s brillant pour accord?on methode Reisner}}\'\', written in 1836 by Miss Louise Reisner of [[Paris]]. Other composers, including the Russian [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]], the Italian [[Umberto Giordano]], and the American [[Charles Ives]] (1915), wrote works for the diatonic button accordion.\n\nThe first composer to write specifically for the [[chromatic music|chromatic]] accordion was [[Paul Hindemith]].[[http://www.akkordeon-online.de/english.htm \'\'Accordion Composers in German\'\'] Accordion Online] In 1922, the Austrian [[Alban Berg]] included an accordion in \'\'[[Wozzeck]]\'\', Op. 7. Other notable composers have written for the accordion during the first half of the 20th century[Henry Doktorski, \"The Classical Squeezebox: A Short History of the Accordion and Other Free-Reed Instruments in Classical Music,\" The Classical Free-Reed, Inc. (1997)] American composer [[William P. Perry]] featured the accordion in his orchestral suite \'\'Six Title Themes in Search of a Movie\'\' (2008). The experimental composer [[Howard Skempton]] began his musical career as an accordionist, and has written numerous solo works for it.\n\nFrench composer [[Henri Dutilleux]] used an accordion in both his late song cycles \'\'Correspondances\'\' (2003) and \'\'[[Le Temps l\'horloge|Le Temps l\'Horloge]]\'\' (2009).\n\n===Bosnia and Herzegovina===\nThe accordion is a traditional instrument in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. It is the dominant instrument used in [[sevdalinka]], a traditional genre of [[folk music]] from Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is also considered a national instrument of the country.\n\n=== Brazil ===\nThe accordion is widely used in [[Brazil]], in traditional as well as pop music. Compared to many other countries, the instrument enjoys in Brazil high popularity in mainstream pop music. In some parts of the country, such as the North-East it is the most popular melodic instrument. As opposed to most European folk, a very dry tuning is usually used in Brazil.\n\nThe accordion (predominantly the piano accordion) is used in almost all styles of [[Forr?]] (in particular in the subgenres of Xote and [[bai?o (music)|Bai?o]]) as principal instrument, [[Luiz Gonzaga]] (the King of the [[bai?o (music)|Bai?o]]) and [[Dominguinhos]] being among the notable musicians in this style. In this musical style the typical combination is a trio of accordion, [[Triangle (musical instrument)|triangle]] and [[zabumba]] (a type of drum). This style has gained popularity recently, in particular among the student population of the South-East of the country (in the [[Forr?]] Universit?rio genre, with important exponents today being Falamansa, and trios such as Trio Dona Zefa, Trio Virgulino and Trio Alvorada). Moreover, the accordion is the principal instrument in Junina music (music of the S?o Jo?o Festival), with Mario Zan having been a very important exponent of this music.\n\nIt is an important instrument in [[M?sica sertaneja|Sertanejo]] (and Caipira) music, which originated in the Centre-west and South-east of Brazil and subsequently has gained popularity throughout the country. In the South of the country (where there is a preponderance of the button accordion), in particular in [[Rio Grande do Sul]], it used in the Brazilian Ga?cho musical style, an important exponent of this music being [[Renato Borghetti]].\n\n=== Colombia ===\nThe accordion is also a traditional instrument in [[Colombia]], commonly associated with the [[vallenato]] and [[cumbia]] genres. The accordion has been used by [[tropipop]] musicians such as [[Carlos Vives]], [[Andr?s Cabas]], [[Fonseca (singer)]] and [[Bacilos]], as well as [[rock music|rock]] musicians such as [[Juanes]] and pop musicians as [[Shakira]]. Vallenato, which emerged in the early twentieth century in a city known as Valledupar, has come to symbolize the folk music of Colombia. The legend of the accordion\'s arrival in Colombia comes from a story of a ship wreck that was coming from Germany to Argentina. The wreck happened over the Magdalena river in the Atlantic coast.\n\nEvery year in April, Colombia holds one of the most important musical festivals in the country: the [[Vallenato Legend Festival]]. The festival holds contests for best accordion player. Once every decade, the King of Kings accordion competition takes place, when winners of the previous festivals compete for the highest possible award for a vallenato accordion player: the \'\'Pilonera Mayor\'\' prize.[Smithsonian Channel, [http://www.smithsonianchannel.com/site/sn/show.do?show=134604 \"The Accordion Kings\"], 15 August 2010.] This is the world\'s largest competitive accordion festival.\n\n=== Use in heavy metal music ===\nAccordionists in [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] make their most extensive appearances in the [[folk metal]] subgenre, and are otherwise generally rare. Full-time accordionists in folk metal seem even rarer, but they are still utilized for studio work, as flexible keyboardists are usually more accessible for live performances.\n\nNotably, the Finnish symphonic folk-metal band [[Turisas]] has always had a full-time accordionist, employing [[classical music|classical]] and [[polka]]-style sensibilities alongside a violinist. Another Finnish metal band, [[Korpiklaani]], invokes a type of Finnish polka called [[humppa]], and also has a full-time accordionist. Sarah Kiener, the former [[hurdy-gurdy]] player for the Swiss melodic-death/folk metal band [[Eluveitie]], played a [[Helvetic Republic|Helvetic]] accordion known as a \'\'zuger?rgeli\'\', which could be a distant relative (in one way or another) to the Swiss [[schwyzer?rgeli]], as both are indigenous to and very rare outside of Switzerland.\n\n== Manufacturing process ==\n\nThe best accordions are always fully hand-made, especially in the aspect of reeds; completely hand-made reeds have a far better tonal quality than even the best automatically manufactured reeds. Some accordions have been modified by individuals striving to bring a more pure sound out of low-end instruments, such as the ones improved by Yutaka Usui,[[http://www.irishdancemaster.com/ Yutaka Usuai], Japanese-born accordion craftsman.] a Japanese-born craftsman.\n\nThe manufacture of an accordion is only a partly automated process. In a sense, all accordions are handmade, since there is always some hand assembly of the small parts required. The general process involves making the individual parts, assembling the subsections, assembling the entire instrument, and final decorating and packaging.[[http://replay.waybackmachine.org/20081226093126/http://enotes.com/how-products-encyclopedia/accordion how-products-encyclopedia_accordion] Old way Back link to: how-products-encyclopedia accordion]\n\nFamous centres of production are the Italian cities of [[Stradella, Lombardy|Stradella]] and [[Castelfidardo]], with many small and medium size manufacturers especially at the latter. Castelfidardo honours the memory of Paolo Soprani who was one of the first large-scale producers. The French town of Tulle has hosted Maugein Freres since 1919, and the company is now the last complete process manufacturer of accordions in France. Large-scale production existed in Germany by [[Hohner]] and [[Weltmeister]], but these lost volume by the end of the 20th century. Hohner now manufactures in China; the [[Weltmeister]] instruments are still handmade by [[VEB Klingenthaler Harmonikawerke|HARMONA]] in Klingenthal, Germany.\n\n== Other audio samples ==\n\n{| style=\"width:90%;\"\n|- valign=top\n| style=\"width:33%;\"|\n{{Listen|filename=Accordion chords-01.ogg|title=Accordion chords|description=Chords being played on an accordion ? 145 KB |format=[[Ogg]]}}\n| style=\"width:33%;\"|\n{{Listen|filename=Accordion_registers.ogg|title=Accordion tones|description=Audio clip of the same octave cycled through five different timbres (Piano Accordion) ? 676 KB |format=[[Ogg]]}}\n| style=\"width:33%;\"|\n|}\n\n== Notes ==\n\n\n== See also ==\n* [[Bandoneon]]\n* [[Steirische Harmonika]]\n* [[Schwyzer?rgeli]]\n* [[Concertina]]\n\n== References ==\n{{reflist|2}}\n\n== External links ==\n{{Commons category|Accordions|accordions}}\n{{wikibooks|Accordion}}\n{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Accordion}}\n* [http://www.accordioncafe.com Articles,Forum,lessons,sheets,videos]\n*[http://www.goldaccordion.com Free accordion scores, music, videos, forum] GoldAccordion.com\n*[http://www.accordionradio.co.uk Accordion Radio]\n*[http://www.linkonardo.com/en/accordion/ Accordion Videos And Links]\n*[http://www.accordions.com Accordions Worldwide]\n*[[List of accordionists]]\n*Accordion museum in [[Castelfidardo]] [http://www.comune.castelfidardo.an.it/visitatore/index.php?id=50004 Museo della Fisarmonica] Comune di Castelfidardo\n*[http://www.accordion-fanatic.com Accordion Fanatic] provides useful information about accordions from accordion playing to repairing and even gifts.\n*[http://accordiontrainer.artillery.be Accordion Trainer] Is a tutoring application that teaches the [[Stradella bass system]].\n\n{{Irish music}}\n{{Musical keyboards}}\n{{Squeezebox}}\n{{Reed aerophones}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n[[Category:Accordion| ]]\n[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]'
'Artificial_intelligence' '{{Redirect|AI|other uses|Ai (disambiguation){{!}}Ai|and|Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)}}\n{{pp-pc1}}\n\n\'\'\'Artificial intelligence\'\'\' (\'\'\'AI\'\'\') is the [[intelligence]] exhibited by machines or software. It is also the name of the academic [[field of study]] which studies how to create computers and computer [[software]] that are capable of intelligent behavior. Major AI researchers and textbooks define this field as \"the study and design of intelligent agents\",[See the [[Dartmouth conference|Dartmouth proposal]], under [[#Philosophy|Philosophy]], below.] This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the [[mind]] and the ethics of creating artificial beings endowed with human-like intelligence, issues which have been addressed by [[History of AI#AI in myth, fiction and speculation|myth]], [[artificial intelligence in fiction|fiction]] and [[philosophy of AI|philosophy]] since antiquity.[The optimism referred to includes the predictions of early AI researchers (see [[History of AI#The optimism|optimism in the history of AI]]) as well as the ideas of modern [[transhumanism|transhumanists]] such as [[Ray Kurzweil]].] but has also suffered stunning [[AI winter|setbacks]].[The \"setbacks\" referred to include the [[AI winter#Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966|ALPAC report]] of 1966, the abandonment of [[perceptrons]] in 1970, [[AI winter#The Lighthill report|the Lighthill Report]] of 1973 and the [[AI winter#The collapse of the Lisp machine market in 1987|collapse of the Lisp machine market]] in 1987.] Today it has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most challenging problems in computer science.[This insight, that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning, is known as the [[Church?Turing thesis]].][Russell and Norvig write \"it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything kind of smartish.\" {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=18}}] computers were winning at checkers, solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.[See {{See section|History of artificial intelligence|The problems}}] In 1974, in response to the criticism of [[Sir James Lighthill]]{{sfn|Lighthill|1973}} and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off all undirected exploratory research in AI. The next few years would later be called an \"[[AI winter]]\",[{{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=480?483}}] In February 2011, in a \'\'[[Jeopardy!]]\'\' [[quiz show]] exhibition match, [[IBM]]\'s [[question answering system]], [[Watson (artificial intelligence software)|Watson]], defeated the two greatest Jeopardy champions, [[Brad Rutter]] and [[Ken Jennings]], by a significant margin.{{sfn|Markoff|2011}} The [[Kinect]], which provides a 3D body?motion interface for the [[Xbox 360]] and the Xbox One, uses algorithms that emerged from lengthy AI research[{{cite web|url=http://www.i-programmer.info/news/105-artificial-intelligence/2176-kinects-ai-breakthrough-explained.html|title=Kinect\'s AI breakthrough explained|author=Administrator|work=i-programmer.info}}] as do [[intelligent personal assistant]]s in [[smartphone]]s.[http://readwrite.com/2013/01/15/virtual-personal-assistants-the-future-of-your-smartphone-infographic]\n\n== Research ==\n\n=== Goals ===\n\nThe general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into a number of specific sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers would like an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention.[ By the late 1980s and 1990s, AI research had also developed highly successful methods for dealing with [[uncertainty|uncertain]] or incomplete information, employing concepts from [[probability]] and economics.][\n\nHuman beings solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgements rather than the conscious, step-by-step deduction that early AI research was able to model.][\n\nAmong the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are:\n\n;[[Default reasoning]] and the [[qualification problem]]: Many of the things people know take the form of \"working assumptions.\" For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture an animal that is fist sized, sings, and flies. None of these things are true about all birds. [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] identified this problem in 1969][{{Harvnb|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}}] or an art critic can take one look at a statue and instantly realize that it is a fake.[{{Harvnb|Gladwell|2005}}] These are intuitions or tendencies that are represented in the brain non-consciously and sub-symbolically.[ Knowledge like this informs, supports and provides a context for symbolic, conscious knowledge. As with the related problem of sub-symbolic reasoning, it is hoped that [[situated artificial intelligence|situated AI]], [[computational intelligence]], or [[#Statistical|statistical AI]] will provide ways to represent this kind of knowledge.][\n\n==== Planning ====\n\n[[File:Hierarchical-control-system.svg|thumb| A [[hierarchical control system]] is a form of [[control system]] in which a set of devices and governing software is arranged in a hierarchy.]]\n\n{{Main|Automated planning and scheduling}}\n\nIntelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them.][ They need a way to visualize the future (they must have a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it) and be able to make choices that maximize the [[utility]] (or \"value\") of the available choices.][This is a form of [[Tom M. Mitchell|Tom Mitchell]]\'s widely quoted definition of machine learning: \"A computer program is set to learn from an experience \'\'E\'\' with respect to some task \'\'T\'\' and some performance measure \'\'P\'\' if its performance on \'\'T\'\' as measured by \'\'P\'\' improves with experience \'\'E\'\'.\"][\n[[Alan Turing]] discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper \"[[Computing Machinery and Intelligence]]\".{{Harv|Turing|1950}} In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer conference, [[Ray Solomonoff]] wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning: \"An Inductive Inference Machine\".{{Harv|Solomonoff|1956}}]\n\n[[Unsupervised learning]] is the ability to find patterns in a stream of input. [[Supervised learning]] includes both [[statistical classification|classification]] and numerical [[Regression analysis|regression]]. Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, after seeing a number of examples of things from several categories. Regression is the attempt to produce a function that describes the relationship between inputs and outputs and predicts how the outputs should change as the inputs change. In [[reinforcement learning]][\"[https://www.academia.edu/2475776/Versatile_question_answering_systems_seeing_in_synthesis Versatile question answering systems: seeing in synthesis]\", Mittal et al., IJIIDS, 5(2), 119-142, 2011\n] and [[machine translation]].[ is closely related to AI. Intelligence is required for robots to be able to handle such tasks as object manipulation][{{harvnb|Kleine-Cosack|2006}}: \"The introduction of emotion to computer science was done by Pickard (sic) who created the field of affective computing.\"][{{harvnb|Diamond|2003}}: \"Rosalind Picard, a genial MIT professor, is the field\'s godmother; her 1997 book, Affective Computing, triggered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of computers and their users.\"] A motivation for the research is the ability to simulate [[empathy]]. The machine should interpret the emotional state of humans and adapt its behaviour to them, giving an appropriate response for those emotions.\n\nEmotion and social skills[[[Nils Nilsson (researcher)|Nils Nilsson]] writes: \"Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI is all about\" {{Harv|Nilsson|1983|p=10}}.] A few of the most long standing questions that have remained unanswered are these: should artificial intelligence simulate natural intelligence by studying [[psychology]] or [[neurology]]? Or is human biology as irrelevant to AI research as bird biology is to [[aeronautical engineering]]?[ During the 1960s, symbolic approaches had achieved great success at simulating high-level thinking in small demonstration programs. Approaches based on [[cybernetics]] or [[neural network]]s were abandoned or pushed into the background.][The most dramatic case of sub-symbolic AI being pushed into the background was the devastating critique of [[perceptron]]s by [[Marvin Minsky]] and [[Seymour Papert]] in 1969. See [[History of AI]], [[AI winter]], or [[Frank Rosenblatt]].]\nResearchers in the 1960s and the 1970s were convinced that symbolic approaches would eventually succeed in creating a machine with [[artificial general intelligence]] and considered this the goal of their field.\n\n; Cognitive simulation: Economist [[Herbert A. Simon|Herbert Simon]] and [[Allen Newell]] studied human problem-solving skills and attempted to formalize them, and their work laid the foundations of the field of artificial intelligence, as well as [[cognitive science]], [[operations research]] and [[management science]]. Their research team used the results of [[psychology|psychological]] experiments to develop programs that simulated the techniques that people used to solve problems. This tradition, centered at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] would eventually culminate in the development of the [[Soar (cognitive architecture)|Soar]] architecture in the middle 1980s.[\n\n; Logic-based: Unlike [[Allen Newell|Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]], [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] felt that machines did not need to simulate human thought, but should instead try to find the essence of abstract reasoning and problem solving, regardless of whether people used the same algorithms.][\n\n; Knowledge-based: When computers with large memories became available around 1970, researchers from all three traditions began to build [[knowledge representation|knowledge]] into AI applications.][ [[:#Deduction, reasoning, problem solving|Reasoning]] can be reduced to performing a search. For example, logical proof can be viewed as searching for a path that leads from [[premise]]s to [[Logical consequence|conclusions]], where each step is the application of an [[inference rule]].][ is used for knowledge representation and problem solving, but it can be applied to other problems as well. For example, the [[satplan]] algorithm uses logic for [[automated planning and scheduling|planning]]][ and [[inductive logic programming]] is a method for [[machine learning|learning]].][\n\nA classifier can be trained in various ways; there are many statistical and [[machine learning]] approaches. The most widely used classifiers are the [[Artificial neural network|neural network]],][\n\nThe main categories of networks are acyclic or [[feedforward neural network]]s (where the signal passes in only one direction) and [[recurrent neural network]]s (which allow feedback). Among the most popular feedforward networks are [[perceptron]]s, [[multi-layer perceptron]]s and [[radial basis network]]s.][{{cite web|last1=Research|first1=AI|title=Deep Neural Networks for Acoustic Modeling in Speech Recognition|url=http://airesearch.com/ai-research-papers/deep-neural-networks-for-acoustic-modeling-in-speech-recognition/|website=airesearch.com|accessdate=23 October 2015|date=23 October 2015}}]\n\n==== Control theory ====\n{{Main|Intelligent control}}\n[[Control theory]], the grandchild of [[cybernetics]], has many important applications, especially in [[robotics]].[ and [[Prolog]].][\n\n=== Evaluating progress ===\n{{Main|Progress in artificial intelligence}}\nIn 1950, Alan Turing proposed a general procedure to test the intelligence of an agent now known as the [[Turing test]]. This procedure allows almost all the major problems of artificial intelligence to be tested. However, it is a very difficult challenge and at present all agents fail.][{{cite web|url=http://hackingroomba.com/?s=atmel|title=Hacking Roomba|work=hackingroomba.com}}]\n\n=== Toys ===\n[[AIBO]], the first robotic pet, grew out of Sony\'s Computer Science Laboratory (CSL). Famed engineer Toshitada Doi is credited as AIBO\'s original progenitor: in 1994 he had started work on robots with artificial intelligence expert Masahiro Fujita, at CSL. Doi\'s friend, the artist Hajime Sorayama, was enlisted to create the initial designs for the AIBO\'s body. Those designs are now part of the permanent collections of Museum of Modern Art and the Smithsonian Institution, with later versions of AIBO being used in studies in Carnegie Mellon University. In 2006, AIBO was added into Carnegie Mellon University\'s \"Robot Hall of Fame\".\n\n== Philosophy and ethics ==\n{{Main|Philosophy of artificial intelligence|Ethics of artificial intelligence}}\nThere are three philosophical questions related to AI:\n#Is [[artificial general intelligence]] possible? Can a machine solve any problem that a human being can solve using intelligence? Or are there hard limits to what a machine can accomplish?\n#Are intelligent machines dangerous? How can we ensure that machines behave ethically and that they are used ethically?\n#Can a machine have a [[mind]], [[consciousness]] and [[philosophy of mind|mental states]] in exactly the same sense that human beings do? Can a machine be [[sentient]], and thus deserve certain rights? Can a machine [[intention]]ally cause harm?\n\n=== The limits of artificial general intelligence ===\n{{Main|philosophy of AI|Turing test|Physical symbol systems hypothesis|Dreyfus\' critique of AI|The Emperor\'s New Mind|AI effect}}\n\nCan a machine be intelligent? Can it \"think\"?\n\n;\'\'[[Computing Machinery and Intelligence|Turing\'s \"polite convention\"]]\'\': We need not decide if a machine can \"think\"; we need only decide if a machine can act as intelligently as a human being. This approach to the philosophical problems associated with artificial intelligence forms the basis of the [[Turing test]].[\nDreyfus criticized the [[necessary and sufficient|necessary]] condition of the [[physical symbol system]] hypothesis, which he called the \"psychological assumption\": \"The mind can be viewed as a device operating on bits of information according to formal rules\". {{Harv|Dreyfus|1992|p=156}}][[http://www.calculemus.org/MathUniversalis/NS/10/01penrose.html Beyond the Doubting of a Shadow, A Reply to Commentaries on Shadows of the Mind], Roger Penrose 1996 The links to the original articles he responds to there are easily found in the Wayback machine: [http://web.archive.org/web/20090415202652/http://psyche.cs.monash.edu.au/v2/psyche-2-08-baars.html Can Physics Provide a Theory of Consciousness?] Barnard J. Bars, [http://web.archive.org/web/20090912183204/http://psyche.cs.monash.edu.au/v2/psyche-2-07-feferman.html Penrose\'s G?delian Argument] etc.] For details see [[Philosophy of artificial intelligence#Lucas, Penrose and G?del|Philosophy of artificial intelligence: Lucas, Penrose and G?del]]\n\n;\'\'The [[artificial brain]] argument\'\': The brain can be simulated by machines and because brains are intelligent, simulated brains must also be intelligent; thus machines can be intelligent. [[Hans Moravec]], [[Ray Kurzweil]] and others have argued that it is technologically feasible to copy the brain directly into hardware and software, and that such a simulation will be essentially identical to the original.[Wendell Wallach (2010). \'\'Moral Machines\'\', Oxford University Press.] For Wallach, AMAs have become a part of the research landscape of artificial intelligence as guided by its two central questions which he identifies as \"Does Humanity Want Computers Making Moral Decisions\"[Wallach, pp 37?54.] and \"Can (Ro)bots Really Be Moral\".[Wallach, pp 55?73.] For Wallach the question is not centered on the issue of \'\'whether\'\' machines can demonstrate the equivalent of moral behavior in contrast to the \'\'constraints\'\' which society may place on the development of AMAs.[Wallach, Introduction chapter.]\n\n==== Machine ethics ====\n{{Main|Machine ethics}}\nThe field of machine ethics is concerned with giving machines ethical principles, or a procedure for discovering a way to resolve the ethical dilemmas they might encounter, enabling them to function in an ethically responsible manner through their own ethical decision making.[Michael Anderson and Susan Leigh Anderson (2011), Machine Ethics, Cambridge University Press.] The field was delineated in the AAAI Fall 2005 Symposium on Machine Ethics: \"Past research concerning the relationship between technology and ethics has largely focused on responsible and irresponsible use of technology by human beings, with a few people being interested in how human beings ought to treat machines. In all cases, only human beings have engaged in ethical reasoning. The time has come for adding an ethical dimension to at least some machines. Recognition of the ethical ramifications of behavior involving machines, as well as recent and potential developments in machine autonomy, necessitate this. In contrast to computer hacking, software property issues, privacy issues and other topics normally ascribed to computer ethics, machine ethics is concerned with the behavior of machines towards human users and other machines. Research in machine ethics is key to alleviating concerns with autonomous systems ? it could be argued that the notion of autonomous machines without such a dimension is at the root of all fear concerning machine intelligence. Further, investigation of machine ethics could enable the discovery of problems with current ethical theories, advancing our thinking about Ethics.\"[{{cite web|url=http://www.aaai.org/Library/Symposia/Fall/fs05-06|title=Machine Ethics|work=aaai.org}}] Machine ethics is sometimes referred to as machine morality, computational ethics or computational morality. A variety of perspectives of this nascent field can be found in the collected edition \"Machine Ethics\" [ that stems from the AAAI Fall 2005 Symposium on Machine Ethics.][\n\n==== Malevolent and friendly AI ====\n{{Main|Friendly AI}}\nPolitical scientist [[Charles T. Rubin]] believes that AI can be neither designed nor guaranteed to be benevolent.][{{cite journal|last=Rubin|first=Charles|authorlink=Charles T. Rubin|date=Spring 2003|title=Artificial Intelligence and Human Nature|journal=The New Atlantis|volume=1|pages=88?100|url=http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/artificial-intelligence-and-human-nature}}] He argues that \"any sufficiently advanced benevolence may be indistinguishable from malevolence.\" Humans should not assume machines or robots would treat us favorably, because there is no \'\'a priori\'\' reason to believe that they would be sympathetic to our system of morality, which has evolved along with our particular biology (which AIs would not share). Hyper-intelligent software may not necessarily decide to support the continued existence of mankind, and would be extremely difficult to stop. This topic has also recently begun to be discussed in academic publications as a real source of risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth.\n\nPhysicist [[Stephen Hawking]], [[Microsoft]] founder [[Bill Gates]] and [[SpaceX]] founder [[Elon Musk]] have expressed concerns about the possibility that AI could evolve to the point that humans could not control it, with Hawking theorizing that this could \"[[Global catastrophic risk|spell the end of the human race]]\".[{{cite web|last1=Rawlinson|first1=Kevin|title=Microsoft\'s Bill Gates insists AI is a threat|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/31047780|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=30 January 2015}}]\n\nOne proposal to deal with this is to ensure that the first generally intelligent AI is \'[[Friendly AI]]\', and will then be able to control subsequently developed AIs. Some question whether this kind of check could really remain in place.\n\nLeading AI researcher [[Rodney Brooks]] writes, \"I think it is a mistake to be worrying about us developing malevolent AI anytime in the next few hundred years. I think the worry stems from a fundamental error in not distinguishing the difference between the very real recent advances in a particular aspect of AI, and the enormity and complexity of building sentient volitional intelligence.\"[{{cite web|last=Brooks|first=Rodney|title=artificial intelligence is a tool, not a threat|date=10 November 2014|url=http://www.rethinkrobotics.com/artificial-intelligence-tool-threat/}}]\n\n==== Devaluation of humanity ====\n{{Main|Computer Power and Human Reason}}\n[[Joseph Weizenbaum]] wrote that AI applications can not, by definition, successfully simulate genuine human empathy and that the use of AI technology in fields such as [[customer service]] or [[psychotherapy]][In the early 1970s, [[Kenneth Colby]] presented a version of Weizenbaum\'s [[ELIZA]] known as DOCTOR which he promoted as a serious therapeutic tool. {{Harv|Crevier|1993|pp=132?144}}] was deeply misguided. Weizenbaum was also bothered that AI researchers (and some philosophers) were willing to view the human mind as nothing more than a computer program (a position now known as [[computationalism]]). To Weizenbaum these points suggest that AI research devalues human life.[{{Ford 2009 The lights in the tunnel}}] and others argue that specialized artificial intelligence applications, robotics and other forms of automation will ultimately result in significant unemployment as machines begin to match and exceed the capability of workers to perform most routine and repetitive jobs. Ford predicts that many knowledge-based occupations?and in particular entry level jobs?will be increasingly susceptible to automation via expert systems, machine learning[{{cite web|url=http://econfuture.wordpress.com/2011/04/14/machine-learning-a-job-killer/|title=Machine Learning: A job killer?|work=econfuture - Robots, AI and Unemployment - Future Economics and Technology}}] and other AI-enhanced applications. AI-based applications may also be used to amplify the capabilities of low-wage offshore workers, making it more feasible to [[Outsourcing|outsource]] [[knowledge worker|knowledge work]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.plugandpray-film.de/en/content.html|title=Content: Plug & Pray Film - Artificial Intelligence - Robots - |author=maschafilm|work=plugandpray-film.de}}]\n\n=== Superintelligence ===\n{{Main|Superintelligence}}\nAre there limits to how intelligent machines ? or human-machine hybrids ? can be? A superintelligence, hyperintelligence, or superhuman intelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind. ??Superintelligence?? may also refer to the form or degree of intelligence possessed by such an agent.\n\n==== Technological singularity ====\n{{Main|Technological singularity|Moore\'s law}}\nIf research into [[artificial general intelligence|Strong AI]] produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to [[recursive self-improvement]].[ The new intelligence could thus increase exponentially and dramatically surpass humans. Science fiction writer [[Vernor Vinge]] named this scenario \"[[technological singularity|singularity]]\".][ Technological singularity is when accelerating progress in technologies will cause a runaway effect wherein artificial intelligence will exceed human intellectual capacity and control, thus radically changing or even ending civilization. Because the capabilities of such an intelligence may be impossible to comprehend, the technological singularity is an occurrence beyond which events are unpredictable or even unfathomable.][\n\n[[Ray Kurzweil]] has used [[Moore\'s law]] (which describes the relentless exponential improvement in digital technology) to calculate that [[desktop computer]]s will have the same processing power as human brains by the year 2029, and predicts that the singularity will occur in 2045.][\n\n==== Transhumanism ====\n{{Main|Transhumanism}}\n{{quote|You awake one morning to find your brain has another lobe functioning. Invisible, this auxiliary lobe answers your questions with information beyond the realm of your own memory, suggests plausible courses of action, and asks questions that help bring out relevant facts. You quickly come to rely on the new lobe so much that you stop wondering how it works. You just use it. This is the dream of artificial intelligence.|\'\'[[BYTE]]\'\', April 1985][{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1985-04/1985_04_BYTE_10-04_Artificial_Intelligence#page/n125/mode/2up | title=Artificial Intelligence | work=BYTE | date=April 1985 | accessdate=14 February 2015 | author=Lemmons, Phil | page=125}}]}}\nRobot designer [[Hans Moravec]], cyberneticist [[Kevin Warwick]] and inventor [[Ray Kurzweil]] have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into [[cyborg]]s that are more capable and powerful than either.[ This idea, called [[transhumanism]], which has roots in [[Aldous Huxley]] and [[Robert Ettinger]], has been illustrated in fiction as well, for example in the [[manga]] \'\'[[Ghost in the Shell]]\'\' and the science-fiction series \'\'[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]\'\'.\n\nIn the 1980s artist [[Hajime Sorayama]]\'s Sexy Robots series were painted and published in Japan depicting the actual organic human form with lifelike muscular metallic skins and later \"the Gynoids\" book followed that was used by or influenced movie makers including [[George Lucas]] and other creatives. Sorayama never considered these organic robots to be real part of nature but always unnatural product of the human mind, a fantasy existing in the mind even when realized in actual form.\n\n[[Edward Fredkin]] argues that \"artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution\", an idea first proposed by [[Samuel Butler (novelist)|Samuel Butler]]\'s \"[[Darwin among the Machines]]\" (1863), and expanded upon by [[George Dyson (science historian)|George Dyson]] in his book of the same name in 1998.]\"The development of full artificial intelligence could spell the end of the human race.\" -Stephen Hawking[{{Cite web|title = Stephen Hawking warns artificial intelligence could end mankind - BBC News|url = http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-30290540|website = BBC News|accessdate = 2015-10-30}}]
A common concern about the development of artificial intelligence is the potential threat it could pose to mankind. This concern has recently gained attention after mentions by celebrities including [[Stephen Hawking]], [[Bill Gates]],[{{Cite news|title = Bill Gates on dangers of artificial intelligence: ?I don?t understand why some people are not concerned?|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2015/01/28/bill-gates-on-dangers-of-artificial-intelligence-dont-understand-why-some-people-are-not-concerned/|newspaper = The Washington Post|date = 2015-01-28|access-date = 2015-10-30|issn = 0190-8286|first = Peter|last = Holley}}] and [[Elon Musk]].[{{Cite web|title = Elon Musk: artificial intelligence is our biggest existential threat|url = http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/oct/27/elon-musk-artificial-intelligence-ai-biggest-existential-threat|website = the Guardian|accessdate = 2015-10-30|first = Samuel|last = Gibbs}}] The opinion of experts within the field of artificial intelligence is mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superhumanly-capable AI.[{{cite journal\n |last1=M?ller |first1=Vincent C.\n |last2=Bostrom |first2=Nick\n |year=2014\n |title=Future Progress in Artificial Intelligence: A Poll Among Experts\n |journal=AI Matters\n |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=9\n |doi=10.1145/2639475.2639478\n |url = http://www.sophia.de/pdf/2014_PT-AI_polls.pdf\n}}]\n\nIn his book \'\'[[Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies|Superintelligence]]\'\', [[Nick Bostrom]] provides an argument that artificial intelligence will pose a threat to mankind. He argues that sufficiently intelligent AI, if it chooses actions based on achieving some goal, will exhibit [[Instrumental convergence|convergent]] behavior such as acquiring resources or protecting itself from being shut down. If this AI\'s goals do not reflect humanity\'s - one example is an AI told to compute as many digits of Pi as possible - it might harm humanity in order to acquire more resources or prevent itself from being shut down, ultimately to better achieve its goal.\n\nFor this danger to be realized, the hypothetical AI would have to overpower or out-think all of humanity, which a minority of experts argue is a possibility far enough in the future to not be worth researching.[{{Cite web|title = Is artificial intelligence really an existential threat to humanity?|url = http://thebulletin.org/artificial-intelligence-really-existential-threat-humanity8577|website = Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists|accessdate = 2015-10-30}}][{{Cite web|title = The case against killer robots, from a guy actually working on artificial intelligence|url = http://fusion.net/story/54583/the-case-against-killer-robots-from-a-guy-actually-building-ai/|website = Fusion.net|accessdate = 2016-1-31}}] Other counterarguments revolve around humans being either intrinsically or convergently valuable from the perspective of an artificial intelligence.[{{Cite web|title = Will artificial intelligence destroy humanity? Here are 5 reasons not to worry.|url = http://www.vox.com/2014/8/22/6043635/5-reasons-we-shouldnt-worry-about-super-intelligent-computers-taking|website = Vox|accessdate = 2015-10-30}}]\n\nConcern over risk from artificial intelligence has led to some high-profile donations and investments. In January 2015, [[Elon Musk]] donated ten million dollars to the [[Future of Life Institute]] to fund research on understanding AI decision making. The goal of the institute is to \"grow wisdom with which we manage\" the growing power of technology. Musk also funds companies developing artificial intelligence such as [[Google DeepMind]] and [[Vicarious_(company)|Vicarious]] to ?just keep an eye on what?s going on with artificial intelligence.[{{Cite web|title = The mysterious artificial intelligence company Elon Musk invested in is developing game-changing smart computers|url = http://www.techinsider.io/mysterious-artificial-intelligence-company-elon-musk-investment-2015-10|website = Tech Insider|accessdate = 2015-10-30}}] I think there is potentially a dangerous outcome there.?[{{Cite web|title = Musk-Backed Group Probes Risks Behind Artificial Intelligence|url = http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-07-01/musk-backed-group-probes-risks-behind-artificial-intelligence|website = Bloomberg.com|accessdate = 2015-10-30|first = Jack|last = Clark}}][{{Cite web|title = Elon Musk Is Donating $10M Of His Own Money To Artificial Intelligence Research|url = http://www.fastcompany.com/3041007/fast-feed/elon-musk-is-donating-10m-of-his-own-money-to-artificial-intelligence-research|website = Fast Company|accessdate = 2015-10-30}}]\n\nDevelopment of militarized artificial intelligence is a related concern. Currently, 50 countries are researching battlefield robots, including the United States, China, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Many people concerned about risk from superintelligent AI also want to limit the use of artificial soldiers.[{{Cite web|title = Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, and Bill Gates Warn About Artificial Intelligence|url = http://observer.com/2015/08/stephen-hawking-elon-musk-and-bill-gates-warn-about-artificial-intelligence/|website = Observer|accessdate = 2015-10-30}}]\n\n== In fiction ==\n{{Main|Artificial intelligence in fiction}}\n\nThe implications of artificial intelligence have been a persistent theme in [[science fiction]]. Early stories typically revolved around intelligent robots. The word \"robot\" itself was coined by [[Karel ?apek]] in his 1921 play \'\'[[R.U.R.]]\'\', the title standing for \"[[Rossum\'s Universal Robots]]\". Later, the SF writer [[Isaac Asimov]] developed the [[Three Laws of Robotics]] which he subsequently explored in a long series of robot stories. These laws have since gained some traction in genuine AI research.\n\nOther influential fictional intelligences include [[HAL 9000|HAL]], the computer in charge of the spaceship in \'\'[[2001: A Space Odyssey]]\'\', released as both a film and a book in 1968 and written by [[Arthur C. Clarke]].\n\nSince then, AI has become firmly rooted in popular culture.\n\n{{div col end}}\n\n== Notes ==\n{{reflist|30em|refs=\n\n\n\n\n[\nDefinition of AI as the study of [[intelligent agents]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|loc=[http://people.cs.ubc.ca/~poole/ci/ch1.pdf p. 1]}}, which provides the version that is used in this article. Note that they use the term \"computational intelligence\" as a synonym for artificial intelligence.\n* {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003}} (who prefer the term \"rational agent\") and write \"The whole-agent view is now widely accepted in the field\" {{Harv|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=55}}.\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998}}\n\n* {{Harvnb|Legg|Hutter|2007}}.\n]\n\n[\nAlthough there is some controversy on this point (see {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|p=50}}), [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy]] states unequivocally \"I came up with the term\" in a c|net interview. {{Harv|Skillings|2006}} McCarthy first used the term in the proposal for the [[Dartmouth conference]], which appeared in 1955. {{Harv|McCarthy|Minsky|Rochester|Shannon|1955}}\n]\n\n[\n[[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy]]\'s definition of AI:\n* {{Harvnb|McCarthy|2007}}\n]\n\n[\nThis is a central idea of [[Pamela McCorduck]]\'s \'\'Machines Who Think\'\'. She writes: \"I like to think of artificial intelligence as the scientific apotheosis of a venerable cultural tradition.\" {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|p=34}} \"Artificial intelligence in one form or another is an idea that has pervaded Western intellectual history, a dream in urgent need of being realized.\" {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|p=xviii}} \"Our history is full of attempts?nutty, eerie, comical, earnest, legendary and real?to make artificial intelligences, to reproduce what is the essential us?bypassing the ordinary means. Back and forth between myth and reality, our imaginations supplying what our workshops couldn\'t, we have engaged for a long time in this odd form of self-reproduction.\" {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|p=3}} She traces the desire back to its [[Hellenistic]] roots and calls it the urge to \"forge the Gods.\" {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|pp=340?400}}\n]\n\n[\nAI applications widely used behind the scenes:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=28}}\n* {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005|p=265}}\n* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=216?222}}\n]\n\n[\nPamela {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp=424}} writes of \"the rough shattering of AI in subfields?vision, natural language, decision theory, genetic algorithms, robotics ... and these with own sub-subfield?that would hardly have anything to say to each other.\"\n]\n\n[\nThis list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004}}\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998}}\n]\n\n[\nGeneral intelligence ([[artificial general intelligence|strong AI]]) is discussed in popular introductions to AI:\n* {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|1999}} and {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}}\n]\n\n\n\n[\nAI in myth:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=4?5}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=939}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Cult image]]s as artificial intelligence:\n* {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|p=1}} (statue of [[Amun]])\n* {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp=6?9}}\nThese were the first machines to be believed to have true intelligence and consciousness. [[Hermes Trismegistus]] expressed the common belief that with these statues, craftsman had reproduced \"the true nature of the gods\", their \'\'sensus\'\' and \'\'spiritus\'\'. McCorduck makes the connection between sacred automatons and [[613 Commandments|Mosaic law]] (developed around the same time), which expressly forbids the worship of robots {{Harv|McCorduck|2004|pp=6?9}}\n]\n\n[\nHumanoid automata:]
\n[[King Mu of Zhou|Yan Shi]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Needham|1986|p=53}}\n[[Hero of Alexandria]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=6}}\n[[Al-Jazari]]:\n* {{cite web|url=http://www.shef.ac.uk/marcoms/eview/articles58/robot.html |title=A Thirteenth Century Programmable Robot |publisher=Shef.ac.uk |accessdate=25 April 2009}}{{Dead link|date=October 2014}}\n[[Wolfgang von Kempelen]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=17}}\n\n\n[\nArtificial beings:]
\n[[J?bir ibn Hayy?n]]\'s [[Takwin]]:\n* {{Harvnb|O\'Connor|1994}}\n[[Judah Loew]]\'s [[Golem]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=15?16}}\n* {{Harvnb|Buchanan|2005|p=50}}\n[[Paracelsus]]\' Homunculus:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=13?14}}\n\n\n[\nAI in early science fiction.\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=17?25}}\n]\n\n[\nFormal reasoning:\n* {{cite book | first = David | last = Berlinski | year = 2000 | title =The Advent of the Algorithm| publisher = Harcourt Books |author-link=David Berlinski | isbn=0-15-601391-6 | oclc = 46890682 }}\n]\n\n[\nAI\'s immediate precursors:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=51?107}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=27?32}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=15, 940}}\n* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=3}}]\nSee also {{See section|History of artificial intelligence|Cybernetics and early neural networks}}. Among the researchers who laid the foundations of AI were [[Alan Turing]], [[John von Neumann]], [[Norbert Wiener]], [[Claude Shannon]], [[Warren McCullough]], [[Walter Pitts]] and [[Donald Hebb]].[\n[[Dartmouth conference]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=111?136}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=47?49}}, who writes \"the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science.\"\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=17}}, who call the conference \"the birth of artificial intelligence.\"\n* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=200?201}}\n]\n\n[\nHegemony of the Dartmouth conference attendees:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=17}}, who write \"for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students.\"\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=129?130}}\n]\n\n[\n\"[[History of AI#The golden years 1956?1974|Golden years]]\" of AI (successful symbolic reasoning programs 1956?1973):\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=243?252}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=52?107}}\n* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=9}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=18?21}}\nThe programs described are [[Arthur Samuel]]\'s checkers program for the [[IBM 701]], [[Daniel Bobrow]]\'s [[STUDENT (computer program)|STUDENT]], [[Allen Newell|Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]]\'s [[Logic Theorist]] and [[Terry Winograd]]\'s [[SHRDLU]].\n]\n\n[\n[[DARPA]] pours money into undirected pure research into AI during the 1960s:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=131}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=51, 64?65}}\n* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=204?205}}\n]\n\n[\nAI in England:\n* {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}\n]\n\n[\nOptimism of early AI:\n* [[Herbert A. Simon|Herbert Simon]] quote: {{Harvnb|Simon|1965|p=96}} quoted in {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=109}}.\n* [[Marvin Minsky]] quote: {{Harvnb|Minsky|1967|p=2}} quoted in {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=109}}.\n]\n\n[\nFirst [[AI Winter]], [[Mansfield Amendment]], [[Lighthill report]]\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=115?117}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=22}}\n* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=212?213}}\n* {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}\n]\n\n[\nExpert systems:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.1}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=22?24}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=227?331}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 17.4}}\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=327?335, 434?435}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=145?62, 197?203}}\n]\n\n[\nBoom of the 1980s: rise of [[expert systems]], [[Fifth generation computer|Fifth Generation Project]], [[Alvey]], [[Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation|MCC]], [[Strategic Computing Initiative|SCI]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=426?441}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=161?162,197?203, 211, 240}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=24}}\n* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=210?211}}\n]\n\n[\nSecond [[AI winter]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=430?435}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=209?210}}\n* {{Harvnb|NRC|1999|pp=214?216}}\n]\n\n[\nFormal methods are now preferred (\"Victory of the [[neats vs. scruffies|neats]]\"):\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=25?26}}\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=486?487}}\n]\n\n\n\n[\nProblem solving, puzzle solving, game playing and deduction:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|loc=chpt. 3?9}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|loc=chpt. 2,3,7,9}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|loc=chpt. 3,4,6,8}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 7?12}}\n]\n\n[\nUncertain reasoning:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=452?644}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=345?395}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=333?381}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 19}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Intractably|Intractability and efficiency]] and the [[combinatorial explosion]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=9, 21?22}}\n]\n\n[\nPsychological evidence of sub-symbolic reasoning:\n* {{Harvtxt|Wason|Shapiro|1966}} showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive [[social intelligence]], performance dramatically improves. (See [[Wason selection task]])\n* {{Harvtxt|Kahneman|Slovic|Tversky|1982}} have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See [[list of cognitive biases]] for several examples).\n* {{Harvtxt|Lakoff|N??ez|2000}} have controversially argued that even our skills at mathematics depend on knowledge and skills that come from \"the body\", i.e. sensorimotor and perceptual skills. (See [[Where Mathematics Comes From]])\n]\n\n[\n[[Knowledge representation]]:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.4}},\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=320?363}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=23?46, 69?81, 169?196, 235?277, 281?298, 319?345}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=227?243}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Knowledge engineering]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=260?266}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=199?233}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. ~17.1?17.4}}\n]\n\n[\nRepresenting categories and relations: [[Semantic network]]s, [[description logic]]s, [[inheritance (computer science)|inheritance]] (including [[frame (artificial intelligence)|frames]] and [[scripts (artificial intelligence)|scripts]]):\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=349?354}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=174?177}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=248?258}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18.3}}\n]\n\n[\nRepresenting events and time:[[Situation calculus]], [[event calculus]], [[fluent calculus]] (including solving the [[frame problem]]):\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=328?341}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281?298}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 18.2}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Causality#Causal calculus|Causal calculus]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=335?337}}\n]\n\n[\nRepresenting knowledge about knowledge: [[Belief calculus]], [[modal logic]]s:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=341?344}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=275?277}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Ontology (computer science)|Ontology]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=320?328}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Qualification problem]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCarthy|Hayes|1969}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}}{{Page needed|date=February 2011}}\nWhile McCarthy was primarily concerned with issues in the logical representation of actions, {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003}} apply the term to the more general issue of default reasoning in the vast network of assumptions underlying all our commonsense knowledge.\n]\n\n[\nDefault reasoning and [[default logic]], [[non-monotonic logic]]s, [[circumscription (logic)|circumscription]], [[closed world assumption]], [[abductive reasoning|abduction]] (Poole \'\'et al.\'\' places abduction under \"default reasoning\". Luger \'\'et al.\'\' places this under \"uncertain reasoning\"):\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=354?360}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=248?256, 323?335}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=335?363}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=~18.3.3}}\n]\n\n[\nBreadth of commonsense knowledge:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=21}},\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=113?114}},\n* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988|p=13}},\n* {{Harvnb|Lenat|Guha|1989}} (Introduction)\n]\n\n[\nExpert knowledge as [[embodied cognition|embodied]] intuition:\n* {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}} ([[Hubert Dreyfus]] is a philosopher and critic of AI who was among the first to argue that most useful human knowledge was encoded sub-symbolically. See [[Dreyfus\' critique of AI]])\n* {{Harvnb|Gladwell|2005}} (Gladwell\'s \'\'[[Blink (book)|Blink]]\'\' is a popular introduction to sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge.)\n* {{Harvnb|Hawkins|Blakeslee|2005}} (Hawkins argues that sub-symbolic knowledge should be the primary focus of AI research.)\n]\n\n[\n[[automated planning and scheduling|Planning]]:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.8}},\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp= 375?459}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281?316}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=314?329}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.1?2, 22}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Applied information economics|Information value theory]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=600?604}}\n]\n\n[\nClassical planning:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=375?430}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=281?315}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=314?329}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.1?2, 22}}\n]\n\n[\nPlanning and acting in non-deterministic domains: conditional planning, execution monitoring, replanning and continuous planning:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=430?449}}\n]\n\n[\nMulti-agent planning and emergent behavior:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=449?455}}\n]\n\n[\n[[machine learning|Learning]]:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.6}},\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=649?788}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=397?438}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=385?542}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Reinforcement learning]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=763?788}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=442?449}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Computational learning theory]]:\n* CITATION IN PROGRESS.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Natural language processing]]:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.7}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=790?831}}\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=91?104}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=591?632}}\n]\n\n[\nApplications of natural language processing, including [[information retrieval]] (i.e. [[text mining]]) and [[machine translation]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=840?857}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=623?630}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Robotic]]s:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.9}},\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=901?942}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=443?460}}\n]\n\n[\nMoving and [[configuration space]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=916?932}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Robotic mapping]] (localization, etc):\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=908?915}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Machine perception]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=537?581, 863?898}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=~chpt. 6}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Computer vision]]:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=I.2.10}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=863?898}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 6}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Speech recognition]]:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.7}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=568?578}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Object recognition]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=885?892}}\n]\n\n[\nEmotion and [[affective computing]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Minsky|2006}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Gerald Edelman]], [[Igor Aleksander]] and others have argued that [[artificial consciousness]] is required for strong AI. ({{Harvnb|Aleksander|1995}}; {{Harvnb|Edelman|2007}})\n]\n\n[\n[[Artificial brain]] arguments: AI requires a simulation of the operation of the human brain\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=957}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=271 and 279}}\nA few of the people who make some form of the argument:\n* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}}\n* {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005|p=262}}\n* {{Harvnb|Hawkins|Blakeslee|2005}}\nThe most extreme form of this argument (the brain replacement scenario) was put forward by [[Clark Glymour]] in the mid-1970s and was touched on by [[Zenon Pylyshyn]] and [[John Searle]] in 1980.\n]\n\n[\n[[AI complete]]: {{Harvnb|Shapiro|1992|p=9}}\n]\n\n\n\n[\nBiological intelligence vs. intelligence in general:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=2?3}}, who make the analogy with [[aeronautical engineering]].\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=100?101}}, who writes that there are \"two major branches of artificial intelligence: one aimed at producing intelligent behavior regardless of how it was accomplioshed, and the other aimed at modeling intelligent processes found in nature, particularly human ones.\"\n* {{Harvnb|Kolata|1982}}, a paper in \'\'[[Science (journal)|Science]]\'\', which describes [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy\'s]] indifference to biological models. Kolata quotes McCarthy as writing: \"This is AI, so we don\'t care if it\'s psychologically real\"[http://books.google.com/books?id=PEkqAAAAMAAJ&q=%22we+don\'t+care+if+it\'s+psychologically+real%22&dq=%22we+don\'t+care+if+it\'s+psychologically+real%22&output=html&pgis=1 ]. McCarthy recently reiterated his position at the [[AI@50]] conference where he said \"Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence\" {{Harv|Maker|2006}}.\n]\n\n[\n[[Neats vs. scruffies]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=421?424, 486?489}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=168}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1983|pp=10?11}}\n]\n\n[\nSymbolic vs. sub-symbolic AI:\n* {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|p=7}}, who uses the term \"sub-symbolic\".\n]\n\n[\n{{Harvnb|Haugeland|1985|pp=112?117}}\n]\n\n[\nCognitive simulation, [[Allen Newell|Newell]] and [[Herbert A. Simon|Simon]], AI at [[Carnegie Mellon University|CMU]] (then called [[Carnegie Tech]]):\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=139?179, 245?250, 322?323 (EPAM)}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=145?149}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Soar (cognitive architecture)|Soar]] (history):\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=450?451}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=258?263}}\n]\n\n[\n[[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|McCarthy]] and AI research at [[Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|SAIL]] and [[SRI International]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=251?259}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993}}\n]\n\n[\nAI research at [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh]] and in France, birth of [[Prolog]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=193?196}}\n* {{Harvnb|Howe|1994}}\n]\n\n[\nAI at [[MIT]] under [[Marvin Minsky]] in the 1960s :\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=259?305}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=83?102, 163?176}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=19}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Cyc]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=489}}, who calls it \"a determinedly scruffy enterprise\"\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=239?243}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=363?365}}\n* {{Harvnb|Lenat|Guha|1989}}\n]\n\n[\nKnowledge revolution:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=266?276, 298?300, 314, 421}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=22?23}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Embodied agent|Embodied]] approaches to AI:\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=454?462}}\n* {{Harvnb|Brooks|1990}}\n* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}}\n]\n\n[\nRevival of [[connectionism]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=214?215}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=25}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Computational intelligence]]\n* [http://www.ieee-cis.org/ IEEE Computational Intelligence Society]\n]\n\n[\nThe [[intelligent agent]] paradigm:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=27, 32?58, 968?972}}\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=7?21}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=235?240}}\n* {{Harvnb|Hutter|2005|pp=125?126}}\nThe definition used in this article, in terms of goals, actions, perception and environment, is due to {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003}}. Other definitions also include knowledge and learning as additional criteria.\n]\n\n[\n[[Agent architecture]]s, [[hybrid intelligent system]]s:\n* {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=27, 932, 970?972}}\n* {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 25}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Hierarchical control system]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Albus|2002}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Subsumption architecture]]:\n* CITATION IN PROGRESS.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}\n]\n\n\n\n[\n[[Search algorithm]]s:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=59?189}}\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=113?163}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=79?164, 193?219}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 7?12}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Forward chaining]], [[backward chaining]], [[Horn clause]]s, and logical deduction as search:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=217?225, 280?294}}\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=~46?52}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=62?73}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 4.2, 7.2}}\n]\n\n[\n[[State space search]] and [[automated planning and scheduling|planning]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=382?387}}\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=298?305}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.1?2}}\n]\n\n[\nUninformed searches ([[breadth first search]], [[depth first search]] and general [[state space search]]):\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=59?93}}\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=113?132}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=79?121}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 8}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Heuristic]] or informed searches (e.g., greedy [[best-first search|best first]] and [[A*]]):\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp= 94?109}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=pp. 132?147}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp= 133?150}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 9}}\n]\n\n[\n[[optimization (mathematics)|Optimization]] searches:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=110?116,120?129}}\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=56?163}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp= 127?133}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Artificial life]] and society based learning:\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=530?541}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Genetic programming]] and [[genetic algorithms]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=509?530}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 4.2}},\n* {{Harvnb|Holland|1975}},\n* {{Harvnb|Koza|1992}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poli|Langdon|McPhee|2008}}.\n]\n\n[\n[[Logic]]:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.3}},\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=194?310}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=35?77}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 13?16}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Satplan]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=402?407}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=300?301}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 21}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Explanation based learning]], [[relevance based learning]], [[inductive logic programming]], [[case based reasoning]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=678?710}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=414?416}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=~422?442}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 10.3, 17.5}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Propositional logic]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=204?233}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=45?50}}\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 13}}\n]\n\n[\n[[First-order logic]] and features such as [[equality (mathematics)|equality]]:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.4}},\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=240?310}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=268?275}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=50?62}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 15}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Fuzzy logic]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=526?527}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Subjective logic]]:\n* CITATION IN PROGRESS.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}\n]\n\n[\nStochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.3}},\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=462?644}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=345?395}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=165?191, 333?381}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 19}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Bayesian network]]s:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=492?523}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=361?381}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=~182?190, ~363?379}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 19.3?4}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Bayesian inference]] algorithm:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=504?519}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=361?381}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=~363?379}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 19.4 & 7}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Bayesian learning]] and the [[expectation-maximization algorithm]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=712?724}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=424?433}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 20}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Bayesian decision theory]] and Bayesian [[decision network]]s:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=597?600}}\n]\n\n[\nStochastic temporal models:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=537?581}}\n[[Dynamic Bayesian network]]s:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=551?557}}\n[[Hidden Markov model]]:\n* {{Harv|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=549?551}}\n[[Kalman filter]]s:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=551?557}}\n]\n\n[\n[[decision theory]] and [[decision analysis]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=584?597}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=381?394}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Markov decision process]]es and dynamic [[decision network]]s:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=613?631}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Game theory]] and [[mechanism design]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=631?643}}\n]\n\n[\nStatistical learning methods and [[classifier (mathematics)|classifiers]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=712?754}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=453?541}}\n]\n\n[\n[[kernel methods]] such as the [[support vector machine]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=749?752}}\n]\n\n[\n[[K-nearest neighbor algorithm]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=733?736}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Gaussian mixture model]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=725?727}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Naive Bayes classifier]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=718}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Alternating decision tree|Decision tree]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=653?664}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=403?408}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=408?417}}\n]\n\n[\nClassifier performance:\n* {{Harvnb|van der Walt|Bernard|2006}}\n]\n\n[\nNeural networks and connectionism:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=736?748}},\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=408?414}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=453?505}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 3}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Backpropagation]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=744?748}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=467?474}},\n* {{Harvnb|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 3.3}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Feedforward neural network]]s, [[perceptron]]s and [[radial basis network]]s:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=739?748, 758}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=458?467}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Recurrent neural networks]], [[Hopfield nets]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=758}}\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=474?505}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Competitive learning]], [[Hebbian theory|Hebbian]] coincidence learning, [[Hopfield network]]s and attractor networks:\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=474?505}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Hierarchical temporal memory]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Hawkins|Blakeslee|2005}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Control theory]]:\n* {{Harvnb|ACM|1998|loc=~I.2.8}},\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=926?932}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=723?821}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=59?62}},\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=18}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Prolog]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp=477?491}},\n* {{Harvnb|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=641?676, 575?581}}\n]\n\n\n\n[\nThe [[Turing test]]:]
\nTuring\'s original publication:\n* {{Harvnb|Turing|1950}}\nHistorical influence and philosophical implications:\n* {{Harvnb|Haugeland|1985|pp=6?9}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=24}}\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=70?71}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=2?3 and 948}}\n\n\n[\n[[Subject matter expert Turing test]]:\n* CITATION IN PROGRESS.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Intrusion detection system|Intrusion detection]]:\n* {{harvnb|Kumar|Kumar|2012}}\n]\n\n[\nMathematical definitions of intelligence:\n* {{harvnb|Hernandez-Orallo|2000}}\n* {{harvnb|Dowe|Hajek|1997}}\n* {{harvnb|Hernandez-Orallo|Dowe|2010}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Game AI]]:\n* CITATION IN PROGRESS.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}\n]\n\n\n\n\n\n[\n[[Dartmouth Conferences|Dartmouth proposal]]:\n* {{Harvnb|McCarthy|Minsky|Rochester|Shannon|1955}} (the original proposal)\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|p=49}} (historical significance)\n]\n\n[\nThe [[physical symbol system]]s hypothesis:\n* {{Harvnb|Newell|Simon|1976|p=116}}\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|p=153}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=18}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Dreyfus\' critique of artificial intelligence]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|1972}}, {{Harvnb|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=120?132}}\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=211?239}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=950?952}},\n]\n\n[\n{{Harvnb|G?del|1951}}: in this lecture, [[Kurt G?del]] uses the incompleteness theorem to arrive at the following disjunction: (a) the human mind is not a consistent finite machine, or (b) there exist [[Diophantine equations]] for which it cannot decide whether solutions exist. G?del finds (b) implausible, and thus seems to have believed the human mind was not equivalent to a finite machine, i.e., its power exceeded that of any finite machine. He recognized that this was only a conjecture, since one could never disprove (b). Yet he considered the disjunctive conclusion to be a \"certain fact\".\n]\n\n[\nThe Mathematical Objection:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=949}}\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=448?449}}\nMaking the Mathematical Objection:\n* {{Harvnb|Lucas|1961}}\n* {{Harvnb|Penrose|1989}}\nRefuting Mathematical Objection:\n* {{Harvnb|Turing|1950}} under \"(2) The Mathematical Objection\"\n* {{Harvnb|Hofstadter|1979}}\nBackground:\n* {{Harvnb|Ref=none|G?del|1931}}, {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Church|1936}}, {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Kleene|1935}}, {{Harvnb|Ref=none|Turing|1937}}\n]\n\n[\nThis version is from {{Harvtxt|Searle|1999}}, and is also quoted in {{Harvnb|Dennett|1991|p=435}}. Searle\'s original formulation was \"The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states.\" {{Harv|Searle|1980|p=1}}. Strong AI is defined similarly by {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=947}}: \"The assertion that machines could possibly act intelligently (or, perhaps better, act as if they were intelligent) is called the \'weak AI\' hypothesis by philosophers, and the assertion that machines that do so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking) is called the \'strong AI\' hypothesis.\"\n]\n\n[\nSearle\'s [[Chinese room]] argument:\n* {{Harvnb|Searle|1980}}. Searle\'s original presentation of the thought experiment.\n* {{Harvnb|Searle|1999}}.\nDiscussion:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=958?960}}\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=443?445}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=269?271}}\n]\n\n\n\n[\n[[Robot rights]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=964}}\n* {{Harvnb|\'\'BBC News\'\'|2006}}\nPrematurity of:\n* {{Harvnb|Henderson|2007}}\nIn fiction:\n* {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|p=190-25}} discusses \'\'[[Frankenstein]]\'\' and identifies the key ethical issues as scientific hubris and the suffering of the monster, i.e. [[robot rights]].\n]\n\n[\nAI could decrease the demand for human labor:\n* {{harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|pp=960?961}}\n* {{cite book| last=Ford | first=Martin | title=The Lights in the Tunnel: Automation, Accelerating Technology and the Economy of the Future | publisher=Acculant Publishing |year=2009 | isbn=978-1-4486-5981-4 | url=http://www.thelightsinthetunnel.com}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Joseph Weizenbaum]]\'s critique of AI:\n* {{Harvnb|Weizenbaum|1976}}\n* {{Harvnb|Crevier|1993|pp=132?144}}\n* {{Harvnb|McCorduck|2004|pp=356?373}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=961}}\nWeizenbaum (the AI researcher who developed the first [[chatterbot]] program, [[ELIZA]]) argued in 1976 that the misuse of artificial intelligence has the potential to devalue human life.\n]\n\n[\n[[Technological singularity]]:\n\n* {{Harvnb|Vinge|1993}}\n* {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=963}}\n]\n\n[\n{{Cite conference | last = Omohundro|first= Steve| author-link= Steve Omohundro | year = 2008| title= The Nature of Self-Improving Arti?cial Intelligence| publisher= presented and distributed at the 2007 Singularity Summit, San Francisco, CA.}}\n]\n\n[\n[[Transhumanism]]:\n* {{Harvnb|Moravec|1988}}\n* {{Harvnb|Kurzweil|2005}}\n* {{Harvnb|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=963}}\n]\n\n[\nAI as evolution:\n* [[Edward Fredkin]] is quoted in {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|p=401}}.\n* {{Harvnb|Butler|1863}}\n* {{Harvnb|Dyson|1998}}\n]\n}}\n\n== References ==\n\n=== AI textbooks ===\n{{refbegin}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Hutter |first=Marcus |author-link=Marcus Hutter |year=2005\n| title=[[AIXI|Universal Artificial Intelligence]]\n| isbn=978-3-540-22139-5\n| publisher=Springer\n| location=Berlin\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last1=Luger |first1=George |author-link=George Luger\n| last2=Stubblefield |first2=William |author2-link=William Stubblefield\n| year=2004\n| title=Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving\n| publisher=Benjamin/Cummings |edition=5th\n| isbn=0-8053-4780-1\n| url=http://www.cs.unm.edu/~luger/ai-final/tocfull.html\n}}\n* {{cite book\n| last=Neapolitan |first=Richard |last2=Jiang |first2=Xia |year=2012\n| title=Contemporary Artificial Intelligence\n| publisher=Chapman & Hall/CRC\n| isbn=978-1-4398-4469-4\n| url=http://www.crcpress.com/product/isbn/9781439844694\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Nilsson |first=Nils |author-link=Nils Nilsson (researcher) |year=1998\n| title=Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis\n| publisher=Morgan Kaufmann\n| isbn=978-1-55860-467-4\n}}\n* {{Russell Norvig 2003}}.\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| first1=David |last1=Poole |author-link=David Poole (researcher)\n| first2=Alan |last2=Mackworth |author2-link=Alan Mackworth\n| first3=Randy |last3=Goebel |author3-link=Randy Goebel\n| year=1998\n| title=Computational Intelligence: A Logical Approach\n| publisher=Oxford University Press |location = New York\n| isbn=0-19-510270-3\n| url=http://www.cs.ubc.ca/spider/poole/ci.html\n}}\n* {{cite book\n| last=Winston |first=Patrick Henry |author-link=Patrick Winston |year=1984\n| title=Artificial Intelligence\n| publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=Reading, MA\n| isbn=0-201-08259-4\n}}\n* {{cite book\n| last=Rich |first=Elaine |author-link=Elaine Rich |year=1983\n| title=Artificial Intelligence\n| publisher = McGraw-Hill\n| isbn=0-07-052261-8\n}}\n{{refend}}\n\n=== History of AI ===\n{{refbegin}}\n* {{Crevier 1993}}.\n* {{McCorduck 2004}}.\n* {{cite book\n| last=Nilsson |first=Nils |author-link=Nils Nilsson (researcher) |year=2009\n| title=The Quest for Artificial Intelligence: A History of Ideas and Achievements\n| publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York\n| isbn=978-0-521-12293-1\n}}\n{{refend}}\n\n=== Other sources ===\n{{refbegin|colwidth=60em}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last1=Asada |first1=M. |last2=Hosoda |first2=K. |last3=Kuniyoshi |first3=Y.\n| last4=Ishiguro |first4=H. |last5=Inui |first5=T. |last6=Yoshikawa |first6=Y.\n| last7=Ogino |first7=M. |last8=Yoshida |first8=C. |year=2009\n| title=Cognitive developmental robotics: a survey\n| journal=IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=12?34\n| url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4895715&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fiel5%2F4563672%2F5038478%2F04895715.pdf%3Farnumber%3D4895715 | doi=10.1109/tamd.2009.2021702\n}}{{dead link|date=March 2015}}\n* {{cite web |ref={{harvid|ACM|1998}}\n| publisher=[[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]\n| year=1998\n| title=ACM Computing Classification System: Artificial intelligence\n| url=http://www.acm.org/class/1998/I.2.html | accessdate=30 August 2007\n}}\n* {{cite encyclopedia |ref=harv\n| last=Albus |first=J. S. |year=2002 |pages=11?20\n| title=4-D/RCS: A Reference Model Architecture for Intelligent Unmanned Ground Vehicles\n| editor1-last=Gerhart |editor-first=G. |editor2-last=Gunderson |editor2-first=R.\n| editor3-last=Shoemaker |editor3-first=C.\n| encyclopedia=Proceedings of the SPIE AeroSense Session on Unmanned Ground Vehicle Technology |volume=3693\n| url=http://www.isd.mel.nist.gov/documents/albus/4DRCS.pdf\n| archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040725051856/http://www.isd.mel.nist.gov/documents/albus/4DRCS.pdf\n| archivedate=25 July 2004\n}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last = Aleksander | first= Igor | authorlink = Igor Aleksander\n| year=1995\n| title= Artificial Neuroconsciousness: An Update\n| publisher=IWANN\n| url = http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/research/neural/publications/iwann.html\n| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/19970302014628/http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/research/neural/publications/iwann.html\n| archivedate = 2 March 1997\n| ref = harv\n}} [http://dblp.uni-trier.de/rec/bibtex/conf/iwann/Aleksander95 BibTex] {{Wayback|df=yes|date=19970302014628 |url=http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/research/neural/publications/iwann.html |title=\n}}.\n* {{cite encyclopedia |ref=harv\n| last=Bach |first=Joscha |year=2008 |pages=63?74\n| title=Seven Principles of Synthetic Intelligence\n| editor1-last=Wang |editor1-first=Pei |editor2-last=Goertzel |editor2-first=Ben |editor3-last=Franklin |editor3-first=Stan\n| work=Artificial General Intelligence, 2008: Proceedings of the First AGI Conference\n| publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-58603-833-5\n| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=a_ZR81Z25z0C&pg=PA63\n}}\n* {{cite news |ref={{harvid|\'\'BBC News\'\'|2006}}\n| date=21 December 2006\n| title=Robots could demand legal rights |work=BBC News\n| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6200005.stm |accessdate=3 February 2011\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last=Brooks |first=Rodney |authorlink=Rodney Brooks |year=1990\n| title=Elephants Don\'t Play Chess\n| journal=Robotics and Autonomous Systems |volume=6 |pages=3?15\n| doi=10.1016/S0921-8890(05)80025-9\n| url=http://people.csail.mit.edu/brooks/papers/elephants.pdf |format=PDF\n| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070809020912/http://people.csail.mit.edu/brooks/papers/elephants.pdf\n| archivedate=9 August 2007 |deadurl=no\n}}\n* {{cite encyclopedia |ref=harv\n| last=Brooks |first=R. A. |year=1991 |pages=225?239\n| title=How to build complete creatures rather than isolated cognitive simulators\n| editor-last=VanLehn |editor-first=K.\n| encyclopedia=Architectures for Intelligence |location=Hillsdale, NJ |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last=Buchanan |first=Bruce G. |year=2005 |pages=53?60\n| title=A (Very) Brief History of Artificial Intelligence\n| journal=AI Magazine\n| url=http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/assets/PDF/AIMag26-04-016.pdf |format=PDF\n| archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070926023314/http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/assets/PDF/AIMag26-04-016.pdf\n| archivedate=26 September 2007 |deadurl=no\n}}\n* {{cite news |ref=harv\n| last=Butler |first=Samuel |authorlink=Samuel Butler (novelist) |date=13 June 1863\n| title=Darwin among the Machines\n| newspaper=The Press |location=Christchurch, New Zealand |department=Letters to the Editor\n| url=http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-ButFir-t1-g1-t1-g1-t4-body.html |accessdate=16 October 2014\n| via=Victoria University of Wellington\n}}\n* {{cite news |ref={{harvid|\'\'CNN\'\'|2006}}\n| title=AI set to exceed human brain power\n| work=CNN |date=26 July 2006\n| url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/\n| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080219001624/http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/\n| archivedate=19 February 2008 |deadurl=no\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Dennett | first=Daniel | author-link=Daniel Dennett\n| year=1991\n| title=[[Consciousness Explained]]\n| publisher=The Penguin Press\n| isbn= 0-7139-9037-6\n}}\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| last=Diamond |first=David |date=December 2003\n| title=The Love Machine; Building computers that care\n| publisher=Wired\n| url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/love.html\n| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080518185630/http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/love.html\n| archivedate=18 May 2008 |deadurl=no\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last1=Dowe |first1=D. L. |last2=Hajek |first2=A. R. |year=1997\n| title=A computational extension to the Turing Test\n| journal=Proceedings of the 4th Conference of the Australasian Cognitive Science Society\n| url=http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/publications/1997/tr-cs97-322-abs.html\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Dreyfus | first=Hubert | authorlink = Hubert Dreyfus\n| year = 1972\n| title = [[What Computers Can\'t Do]]\n| publisher = MIT Press | location = New York\n| isbn = 0-06-011082-1\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Dreyfus | first=Hubert | authorlink = Hubert Dreyfus\n| last2 = Dreyfus | first2 = Stuart\n| year = 1986\n| title = Mind over Machine: The Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer\n| publisher = Blackwell | location = Oxford, UK\n| isbn=0-02-908060-6\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Dreyfus | first=Hubert | authorlink = Hubert Dreyfus\n| year =1992\n| title = What Computers \'\'Still\'\' Can\'t Do\n| publisher = MIT Press | location = New York\n| isbn=0-262-54067-3\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Dyson |first=George |authorlink=George Dyson (science historian) |year=1998\n| title=Darwin among the Machines\n| publisher=Allan Lane Science |isbn=0-7382-0030-1\n}}\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| last = Edelman | first = Gerald | authorlink = Gerald Edelman\n| date = 23 November 2007\n| title = Gerald Edelman ? Neural Darwinism and Brain-based Devices\n| url = http://lis.epfl.ch/resources/podcast/2007/11/gerald-edelman-neural-darwinism-and.html\n| publisher = Talking Robots\n}}{{dead link|date=March 2015}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Edelson |first=Edward |year=1991\n| title=The Nervous System\n| publisher=Chelsea House |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7910-0464-7\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Fearn\n| first = Nicholas\n| year =2007\n| title= The Latest Answers to the Oldest Questions: A Philosophical Adventure with the World\'s Greatest Thinkers\n| publisher = Grove Press\n| location=New York |isbn=0-8021-1839-9\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n | last = Gladwell | first = Malcolm | authorlink= Malcolm Gladwell\n | year = 2005\n | title = [[Blink (book)|Blink]]\n | isbn = 0-316-17232-4\n | publisher = Little, Brown and Co. | location = New York\n}}\n* {{cite conference | ref=harv\n| last=G?del |first=Kurt |authorlink=Kurt G?del |year=1951\n| title=Some basic theorems on the foundations of mathematics and their implications\n| conference=Gibbs Lecture\n}} In
{{cite book\n| editor-last=Feferman |editor-first=Solomon |editorlink=Solomon Feferman |year=1995 |pages=304?23\n| title=Kurt G?del: Collected Works, Vol. III: Unpublished Essays and Lectures\n| publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-514722-3\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Haugeland | first=John | author-link = John Haugeland\n| year = 1985\n| title = Artificial Intelligence: The Very Idea\n| publisher=MIT Press| location= Cambridge, Mass.\n| isbn=0-262-08153-9\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Hawkins | first=Jeff | author-link=Jeff Hawkins\n| last2=Blakeslee | first2=Sandra\n| year=2005\n| title=[[On Intelligence]]\n| publisher=Owl Books | location=New York, NY\n| isbn=0-8050-7853-3\n}}\n* {{cite news |ref=harv\n| last=Henderson |first=Mark |date=24 April 2007\n| title=Human rights for robots? 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E. |year=2007\n| title=Learning multiple layers of representation\n| journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=11 |pages=428?434 | doi=10.1016/j.tics.2007.09.004\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Hofstadter | first = Douglas | author-link = Douglas Hofstadter\n| year = 1979\n| title = [[G?del, Escher, Bach|G?del, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid]]\n| isbn=0-394-74502-7\n| publisher=Vintage Books\n| location=New York, NY\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Holland |first=John H. |year=1975\n| title=Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems\n| publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-262-58111-6\n}}\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| first = J. | last = Howe\n| date = November 1994\n| title = Artificial Intelligence at Edinburgh University: a Perspective\n| url=http://www.inf.ed.ac.uk/about/AIhistory.html | accessdate=30 August 2007\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Hutter |first=M. |year=2012\n| title=Theoretical Foundations of Artificial General Intelligence\n| chapter=One Decade of Universal Artificial Intelligence\n| volume=4 |series=Atlantis Thinking Machines\n| doi=10.2991/978-94-91216-62-6_5 |isbn=978-94-91216-61-9\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last=James |first=William |year=1884\n| title=What is Emotion\n| journal=Mind |volume=9 |pages=188?205 |doi=10.1093/mind/os-IX.34.188\n}} Cited by {{harvnb|Tao|Tan|2005}}.\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Kahneman | first=Daniel | author-link=Daniel Kahneman\n| last2=Slovic | first2= D.\n| last3=Tversky | first3=Amos | author3-link=Amos Tversky\n| year=1982\n| title=Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases\n| publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=New York\n| isbn=0-521-28414-7\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last=Katz |first=Yarden |date=1 November 2012\n| title=Noam Chomsky on Where Artificial Intelligence Went Wrong\n| work=The Atlantic\n| url=http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/11/noam-chomsky-on-where-artificial-intelligence-went-wrong/261637/?single_page=true |accessdate=26 October 2014\n}}\n* {{cite web |ref={{harvid|\'\'Kismet\'\'}}\n| title=Kismet\n| publisher=MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Humanoid Robotics Group\n| url=http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/humanoid-robotics-group/kismet/kismet.html |accessdate=25 October 2014\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Koza |first=John R. |year=1992\n| title=Genetic Programming (On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection)\n| publisher=MIT Press |isbn=0-262-11170-5\n}}\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| last=Kleine-Cosack |first=Christian |date=October 2006 |format=PDF\n| title= Recognition and Simulation of Emotions\n| url= http://ls12-www.cs.tu-dortmund.de//~fink/lectures/SS06/human-robot-interaction/Emotion-RecognitionAndSimulation.pdf\n| archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080528135730/http://ls12-www.cs.tu-dortmund.de/~fink/lectures/SS06/human-robot-interaction/Emotion-RecognitionAndSimulation.pdf |archivedate=28 May 2008\n}}\n* {{Cite journal |ref=harv\n| first = G. | last=Kolata\n| year=1982\n| title=How can computers get common sense?\n| journal=Science | issue= 4566| pages=1237?1238\n| doi = 10.1126/science.217.4566.1237\n| volume = 217 |pmid=17837639\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last1=Kumar | first1=Gulshan\n| last2=Kumar | first2=Krishan\n| title=The Use of Artificial-Intelligence-Based Ensembles for Intrusion Detection: A Review\n| journal=Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing\n| year=2012\n| volume=2012\n| pages=1?20\n| doi=10.1155/2012/850160\n| url=http://www.hindawi.com.proxy.lib.umich.edu/journals/acisc/2012/850160/\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Kurzweil | first=Ray | author-link=Ray Kurzweil\n| year=1999\n| title=[[The Age of Spiritual Machines]]\n| publisher=Penguin Books\n| isbn=0-670-88217-8\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Kurzweil | first=Ray | author-link=Ray Kurzweil\n| year=2005\n| title=[[The Singularity is Near]]\n| publisher=Penguin Books\n| isbn=0-670-03384-7\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Lakoff | first=George | author-link=George Lakoff\n| last2=N??ez | first2=Rafael E. | author2-link=Rafael E. N??ez| year=2000\n| title=[[Where Mathematics Comes From|Where Mathematics Comes From: How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being]]\n| publisher=Basic Books\n| isbn= 0-465-03771-2\n}}\n* {{Cite journal |ref=harv\n| last1=Langley |first1=Pat |year=2011\n| title=The changing science of machine learning\n| journal=[[Machine Learning (journal)|Machine Learning]]\n| volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=275?279\n| doi=10.1007/s10994-011-5242-y\n}}\n* {{cite techreport |ref=harv\n| last=Law |first=Diane |date=June 1994\n| title=Searle, Subsymbolic Functionalism and Synthetic Intelligence\n| institution=University of Texas at Austin |page=AI94-222\n| id = {{citeseerx|10.1.1.38.8384}}\n}}\n* {{cite techreport |ref=harv\n| last1=Legg |first1=Shane |last2=Hutter |first2=Marcus |date=15 June 2007\n| title=A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence\n| institution=[[IDSIA]] |number=07-07 |arxiv=0706.3639\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Lenat | first=Douglas | author-link=Douglas Lenat\n| last2=Guha | first2=R. V.\n| year = 1989\n| title = Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems\n| publisher = Addison-Wesley\n| isbn=0-201-51752-3\n}}\n* {{Cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Lighthill |first=James |author-link=James Lighthill |year=1973\n| contribution= Artificial Intelligence: A General Survey\n| title=Artificial Intelligence: a paper symposium\n| publisher=Science Research Council\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Lucas | first= John | author-link = John Lucas (philosopher)\n| year = 1961\n| contribution=Minds, Machines and G?del\n| editor-last = Anderson | editor-first =A.R.\n| title=Minds and Machines\n| url = http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/Godel/mmg.html | accessdate=30 August 2007\n| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070819165214/http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/Godel/mmg.html| archivedate= 19 August 2007 | deadurl= no\n}}\n* {{cite paper |ref=harv\n| last1=Lungarella |first1=M. |last2=Metta |first2=G. |last3=Pfeifer |first3=R. |last4=Sandini |first4=G. |year=2003\n| title=Developmental robotics: a survey\n| journal=Connection Science |volume=15 |pages=151?190 |id={{citeseerx|10.1.1.83.7615}} | doi=10.1080/09540090310001655110\n}}\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| last = Maker | first = Meg Houston\n| year = 2006\n| title = AI@50: AI Past, Present, Future | location=Dartmouth College\n| url = http://www.engagingexperience.com/2006/07/ai50_ai_past_pr.html | accessdate=16 October 2008\n| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081008120238/http://www.engagingexperience.com/2006/07/ai50_ai_past_pr.html| archivedate= 8 October 2008 | deadurl= no}}\n* {{cite news |ref=harv\n| last=Markoff |first=John | date=16 February 2011\n| title=Computer Wins on \'Jeopardy!\': Trivial, It\'s Not |work=The New York Times\n| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/science/17jeopardy-watson.html |accessdate=25 October 2014\n}}\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| last1 = McCarthy | first1 = John | authorlink1 = John McCarthy (computer scientist)\n| last2 = Minsky | first2 = Marvin | authorlink2 = Marvin Minsky\n| last3 = Rochester | first3 = Nathan | authorlink3 = Nathan Rochester\n| last4 = Shannon | first4 = Claude | authorlink4 = Claude Shannon\n| year = 1955\n| title = A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence\n| url = http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html | accessdate=30 August 2007\n| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070826230310/http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html| archivedate= 26 August 2007 | deadurl= no}}.\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last1 = McCarthy | first1 = John | author-link = John McCarthy (computer scientist)\n| last2 = Hayes | first2=P. J.\n| year = 1969\n| title= Some philosophical problems from the standpoint of artificial intelligence\n| journal =Machine Intelligence | volume= 4 | pages = 463?502\n| url=http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcchay69.html | accessdate=30 August 2007\n| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20070810233856/http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcchay69.html| archivedate= 10 August 2007 | deadurl= no}}\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| last=McCarthy | first=John | authorlink=John McCarthy (computer scientist)\n| title=What Is Artificial Intelligence?\n| date=12 November 2007\n| url=http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/whatisai.html\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Minsky | first=Marvin | author-link=Marvin Minsky\n| year = 1967\n| title = Computation: Finite and Infinite Machines\n| publisher = Prentice-Hall | location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J.\n| isbn=0-13-165449-7\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Minsky | first=Marvin | author-link=Marvin Minsky\n| year = 2006\n| title = [[The Emotion Machine]]\n| publisher = Simon & Schusterl | publication-place=New York, NY\n| isbn=0-7432-7663-9\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Moravec | first=Hans | author-link=Hans Moravec\n| year = 1988\n| title = Mind Children\n| publisher = Harvard University Press\n| isbn=0-674-57616-0\n}}\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| last=Norvig |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Norvig |date=25 June 2012\n| title=On Chomsky and the Two Cultures of Statistical Learning\n| publisher=Peter Norvig\n| url=http://norvig.com/chomsky.html\n| archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20141019223259/http://norvig.com/chomsky.html\n| archivedate=19 October 2014 |deadurl=no\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref={{harvid|NRC|1999}}\n| author=NRC (United States National Research Council) | authorlink=United States National Research Council\n| year=1999\n| chapter=Developments in Artificial Intelligence\n| title=Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research\n| publisher=National Academy Press\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Needham | first=Joseph | authorlink = Joseph Needham\n| year=1986\n| title=[[Science and Civilization in China]]: Volume 2\n| publisher=Caves Books Ltd.\n}}\n* {{cite journal|ref=harv\n| last=Newell |first=Allen |author-link=Allen Newell\n| last2=Simon |first2=H. A. | authorlink2=Herbert A. Simon\n| year=1976\n| title=Computer Science as Empirical Inquiry: Symbols and Search\n| journal=Communications of the ACM |volume= 19 |issue=3 | doi=10.1145/360018.360022 \n| url=http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~cfs/472_html/AI_SEARCH/PSS/PSSH4.html | pages=113?126\n}}{{dead link|date=March 2015}}.\n* {{Cite journal |ref=harv\n| last=Nilsson |first=Nils |author-link = Nils Nilsson (researcher) |year=1983\n| title=Artificial Intelligence Prepares for 2001\n| journal=AI Magazine |volume=1 |number=1\n| url=http://ai.stanford.edu/~nilsson/OnlinePubs-Nils/General%20Essays/AIMag04-04-002.pdf\n}} Presidential Address to the [[Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence]].\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last1=O\'Brien |first1=James |last2=Marakas |first2=George |year=2011\n| title=Management Information Systems |publisher=McGraw-Hill/Irwin |edition=10th\n| isbn=978-0-07-337681-3\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last=O\'Connor |first=Kathleen Malone |year=1994\n| title=The alchemical creation of life (takwin) and other concepts of Genesis in medieval Islam\n| publisher=University of Pennsylvania\n| url=http://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI9503804\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last=Oudeyer |first=P-Y. |year=2010\n| title=On the impact of robotics in behavioral and cognitive sciences: from insect navigation to human cognitive development\n| journal=IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=2?16\n| url=http://www.pyoudeyer.com/IEEETAMDOudeyer10.pdf | doi=10.1109/tamd.2009.2039057\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Penrose |first=Roger |author-link=Roger Penrose |year=1989\n| title=The Emperor\'s New Mind: Concerning Computer, Minds and The Laws of Physics\n| publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]\n| isbn=0-19-851973-7\n}}\n* {{cite techreport |ref=harv\n| last=Picard |first=Rosalind |authorlink=Rosalind Picard |year=1995\n| title=Affective Computing |institution=MIT |number=321\n| url=http://affect.media.mit.edu/pdfs/95.picard.pdf\n| laysource=Abstract |layurl=http://vismod.media.mit.edu/pub/tech-reports/TR-321-ABSTRACT.html\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last1=Poli |first1=R. |last2=Langdon |first2=W. B. |last3=McPhee |first3=N. F. |year=2008\n| title=A Field Guide to Genetic Programming |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-1-4092-0073-4\n| url=http://www.gp-field-guide.org.uk/ |via=gp-field-guide.org.uk\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last=Rajani |first=Sandeep |year=2011\n| title=Artificial Intelligence ? Man or Machine\n| journal=International Journal of Information Technology and Knowledge Management\n| volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=173?176\n| url=http://www.csjournals.com/IJITKM/PDF%204-1/35.Sandeep%20Rajani.pdf\n}}\n* {{Cite journal |ref=harv\n| last = Searle | first = John | author-link=John Searle\n| year = 1980\n| title = Minds, Brains and Programs\n| journal = Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages= 417?457\n| url = http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/84/bbs00000484-00/bbs.searle2.html |doi=10.1017/S0140525X00005756\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Searle | first=John | author-link=John Searle\n| year = 1999\n| title = Mind, language and society\n| publisher = Basic Books | location = New York, NY\n| isbn = 0-465-04521-9 | oclc = 231867665 43689264\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Shapiro | first= Stuart C. | editor-first=Stuart C. | editor-last=Shapiro\n| year=1992\n| contribution=Artificial Intelligence\n| title=Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence | edition=2nd | pages=54?57\n| url=http://www.cse.buffalo.edu/~shapiro/Papers/ai.pdf\n| publisher= John Wiley | location=New York\n| isbn=0-471-50306-1\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Simon | first = H. A. | author-link=Herbert A. Simon\n| year = 1965\n| title=The Shape of Automation for Men and Management\n| publisher = Harper & Row | publication-place = New York\n}}\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| last=Skillings | first=Jonathan\n| url=http://news.cnet.com/Getting-machines-to-think-like-us/2008-11394_3-6090207.html\n| title=Getting Machines to Think Like Us\n| work=cnet\n| date=3 July 2006\n| accessdate=3 February 2011\n}}\n* {{cite conference |ref=harv\n| last=Solomonoff |first=Ray |authorlink=Ray Solomonoff |year=1956\n| title=An Inductive Inference Machine\n| conference=Dartmouth Summer Research Conference on Artificial Intelligence\n| url=http://world.std.com/~rjs/indinf56.pdf |via=std.com, pdf scanned copy of the original\n}} Later published as
{{cite book\n| last=Solomonoff |first=Ray |year=1957 |pages=56?62\n| chapter=An Inductive Inference Machine\n| title=IRE Convention Record |volume=Section on Information Theory, part 2\n}}\n* {{cite conference |ref=harv\n| last=Tao |first=Jianhua |first2=Tieniu |last2=Tan |year=2005\n| conference=Affective Computing: A Review\n| booktitle=Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction |volume=[[LNCS]] 3784 |pages=981?995\n |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/11573548\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last=Tecuci |first=Gheorghe |date=March?April 2012\n| title=Artificial Intelligence\n| journal=Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Computational Statistics\n| volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=168?180 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/wics.200\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Thro |first=Ellen |year=1993\n| title=Robotics: The Marriage of Computers and Machines\n| location=New York |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-2628-9\n}}\n* {{Turing 1950}}.\n* {{cite web |ref=harv\n| last=van der Walt | first=Christiaan | last2=Bernard | first2 =Etienne\n| year=2006\n| title= Data characteristics that determine classifier performance\n| url=http://www.patternrecognition.co.za/publications/cvdwalt_data_characteristics_classifiers.pdf|format=PDF | accessdate =5 August 2009\n}}\n* {{cite web | ref=harv\n| last=Vinge | first=Vernor | authorlink=Vernor Vinge\n| year=1993\n| title=The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era\n| url=http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/vinge/misc/singularity.html\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last1=Wason | first1=P. C. | author-link=Peter Cathcart Wason\n| last2=Shapiro | first2=D.\n| editor=Foss, B. M.\n| year=1966\n| title=New horizons in psychology\n| location=Harmondsworth | publisher=Penguin\n| chapter=Reasoning\n}}\n* {{cite book |ref=harv\n| last=Weizenbaum | first = Joseph | authorlink=Joseph Weizenbaum\n| year = 1976\n| title = [[Computer Power and Human Reason]]\n| publisher = W.H. Freeman & Company | location = San Francisco\n| isbn = 0-7167-0464-1\n}}\n* {{cite journal |ref=harv\n| last1=Weng |first1=J. |last2=McClelland |first= |last3=Pentland |first3=A. |last4=Sporns |first4=O.\n| last5=Stockman |first5=I. |last6=Sur |first6=M. |last7=Thelen |first7=E. |year=2001\n| url=http://www.cse.msu.edu/dl/SciencePaper.pdf |via=msu.edu | doi= 10.1126/science.291.5504.599 \n| title=Autonomous mental development by robots and animals |work=Science |volume=291 |pages=599?600\n}}\n{{refend}}\n\n== Further reading ==\n* TechCast Article Series, John Sagi, [https://www.techcastglobal.com/documents/10193/34869/Consciousness-Sagifinalversion Framing Consciousness]\n* [[Margaret Boden|Boden, Margaret]], Mind As Machine, [[Oxford University Press]], 2006\n* Johnston, John (2008) \"The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI\", MIT Press\n* Myers, Courtney Boyd ed. (2009). [http://www.forbes.com/2009/06/22/singularity-robots-computers-opinions-contributors-artificial-intelligence-09_land.html The AI Report]. Forbes June 2009\n* {{cite journal | last1 = Serenko | first1 = Alexander | year = 2010 | title = The development of an AI journal ranking based on the revealed preference approach | url = http://www.aserenko.com/papers/JOI_Serenko_AI_Journal_Ranking_Published.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Journal of Informetrics | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 447?459 | doi = 10.1016/j.joi.2010.04.001 }}\n* {{cite journal | last1 = Serenko | first1 = Alexander | author2=Michael Dohan | year = 2011 | title = Comparing the expert survey and citation impact journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence | url = http://www.aserenko.com/papers/JOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf | format = PDF | journal = Journal of Informetrics | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 629?649 | doi = 10.1016/j.joi.2011.06.002 }}\n* Sun, R. & Bookman, L. (eds.), \'\'Computational Architectures: Integrating Neural and Symbolic Processes\'\'. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Needham, MA. 1994.\n* {{cite web\n|url=http://www.technologyreview.com/news/533686/2014-in-computing-breakthroughs-in-artificial-intelligence/\n|title=2014 in Computing: Breakthroughs in Artificial Intelligence\n|author=Tom Simonite\n|date=29 December 2014\n|work=MIT Technology Review\n|publisher=\n|accessdate=\n}}\n\n== External links ==\n{{Sister project links|voy=no|Artificial Intelligence}}\n* [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/whatisai/whatisai.html What Is AI?] ? An introduction to artificial intelligence by [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]]—a co-founder of the field, and the person who coined the term.\n* [https://archive.org/details/handbookofartific01barr/ The Handbook of Artificial Intelligence Volume ? by Avron Barr and Edward A. Feigenbaum (Stanford University)]\n* {{IEP|art-inte|Artificial Intelligence}}\n* {{SEP|logic-ai|Logic and Artificial Intelligence|Richmond Thomason}}\n* {{dmoz|Computers/Artificial_Intelligence/|AI}}\n* [http://aitopics.org/ AITopics] ? A large directory of links and other resources maintained by the [[Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence]], the leading organization of academic AI researchers.\n\n{{Clear}}\n{{Navboxes\n|list=\n{{John McCarthy navbox}}\n{{Computable knowledge}}\n{{Computer science}}\n{{Evolutionary computation}}\n{{Technology}}\n{{philosophy of science}}\n{{philosophy of mind}}\n{{Robotics}}\n{{Emerging technologies}}\n\n}}\n{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Artificial Intelligence}}\n[[Category:Artificial intelligence| ]]\n[[Category:Cybernetics]]\n[[Category:Formal sciences]]\n[[Category:Technology in society]]\n[[Category:Computational neuroscience]]\n[[Category:Emerging technologies]]\n[[Category:Unsolved problems in computer science]]'
'Afro_Celt_Sound_System' '{{Refimprove|date=November 2007}}\n{{Infobox musical artist \n| name = Afro Celt Sound System\n| image = Simon Emmerson 1.jpg\n| caption = \n| image_size = \n| landscape = Yes\n| background = group_or_band\n| alias = ACSS, Afrocelts\n| origin =\n| genre = [[World fusion]], [[Worldbeat]], [[Afro beat]], [[Celtic fusion]], [[Ethnic electronica]]\n| years_active = 1995?present\n| label = [[Real World Records]]\n| associated_acts = [[Peter Gabriel]], [[Sin?ad O\'Connor]], [[Robert Plant]]\n| website = [http://afroceltsoundsystem.com/ Afro Celt Sound System website]\n| current_members = [[Simon Emmerson]]
[[James McNally (musician)|James McNally]]
[[N\'Faly Kouyate]]
[[IanMarkin]]
[[Dav Daheley]]
[[Babara Bangoura]]
[[Jimmy Mahon]]
[[Martin Russell]]\n| past_members =\n}}\n\'\'\'Afro Celt Sound System\'\'\' is a [[band (music)|musical group]] which fuses modern [[electronic dance music|electronic dance rhythms]] ([[trip hop]], [[techno music|techno]], etc.) with traditional [[Irish traditional music|Irish]] and [[Music of Africa|West African]] music. It was originally formed in 1995 by [[Grammy]]-nominated producer-guitarist [[Simon Emmerson]], and features a wide range of guest artists.[{{cite web|url={{Allmusic|class=artist|id=afro-celt-sound-system-p200387/biography|pure_url=yes}}|title=Afro Celt Sound System Biography|last=Harris|first=Graid|publisher=Allmusic.com|accessdate=18 November 2010}}]\n\nTheir albums have been released through [[Peter Gabriel]]\'s [[Real World Records]], and they have frequently performed at [[WOMAD]] festivals worldwide. Their sales on the label are exceeded only by Gabriel himself. Their recording contract with Real World was for five albums, of which \'\'Volume 5: Anatomic\'\' was the last.[{{cite web|url=http://www.thejazzmann.com/reviews/review/afro-celt-sound-system-capture/|title=Review of Capture|last=Mann|first=Ian|publisher=TheJazzMann.com|accessdate=18 November 2010}}]\n\nAfter a number of festival dates in 2007, the band went on hiatus. In 2010, they regrouped to play a number of shows (including a return to WOMAD[{{cite web|url=http://www.realworldrecords.com/news/afro-celt-sound-system-return-to-the-home-where-they-were-launched-in-1995-the-womad-festival |title=News ? Real World Records - World music label |publisher=Real World Records |date=2013-09-19 |accessdate=2014-07-15}}]), releasing a re-mastered retrospective titled \'\'Capture.\'\'[{{cite web|url=http://www.realworldrecords.com/catalogue/capture |title=World music label |publisher=Real World Records |date=2013-09-19 |accessdate=2014-07-15}}]\n\nOn the 20 May 2014 Afro Celt Sound System launched a new website and with it announced the upcoming release of a new album, \'\'Born\'\'.[{{cite web|url=http://afroceltsoundsystem.com/ |title=Afro Celt Sound System |publisher=Afro Celt Sound System |date= |accessdate=2014-07-15}}]\n\n==Formation==\nThe inspiration behind the project dates back to 1991, when Simon Emmerson, a [[Grammy Award]]-nominated British [[Record producer|producer]] and guitarist, collaborated with Afro-pop star [[Baaba Maal]]. While making an album with Maal in Senegal, Emmerson was struck by the similarity between one African melody and a traditional Irish air. Back in London, Irish musician [[Davy Spillane]] told Emmerson about a belief that nomadic Celts lived in Africa or India before they migrated to Western Europe. Whether or not the theory was true, Emmerson was intrigued by the two countries\' musical affinities.\n\nIn an experiment that would prove successful, Emmerson brought two members of Baaba Maal\'s band together with traditional Irish musicians to see what kind of music the two groups would create. Adding a dash of modern sound, Emmerson also brought in English dance mixers for an electronic beat. \"People thought I was mad when I touted the idea,\" Emmerson told Jim Carroll of \'\'[[The Irish Times]]\'\'. \"At the time, I was out of favour with the London club scene. I was broke and on income support but the success was extraordinary\".{{full|date=November 2012}}\n\nJamming in the studios at Real World, musician Peter Gabriel\'s recording facilities in [[Wiltshire, England]], the diverse group of musicians recorded the basis of their first album in one week. This album, \'\'[[Volume 1: Sound Magic]]\'\', was released by Real World Records in 1996, and marked the debut of the Afro Celt Sound System, an energetic global fusion the likes of which the music world had not yet seen.\n\n\"Prior to that first album being made, none of us knew if it would work,\" musician James McNally told Larry Katz of the Boston Herald. \"We were strangers who didn\'t even speak the same language. But we were bowled over by this communication that took place beyond language.\"{{full|date=November 2012}} McNally, who grew up second-generation Irish in London, played whistles, keyboards, piano, [[bodhran]], and bamboo flute.\n\n\'\'Sound Magic\'\' has now sold over 300,000 copies. The band performed at festivals, raves, and dance clubs and regularly included two African musicians, Moussa Sissokho on talking drum and djembe and [[N\'Faly Kouyate]] on vocals, [[Kora (instrument)|kora]] and [[balafon]].\n\nJust as the second album was getting off the ground, one of the group\'s core musicians, 27-year-old [[keyboardist]] [[Jo Bruce]] (son of [[Cream (band)|Cream]] bass player [[Jack Bruce]]), died suddenly of an [[asthma]] attack. The band was devastated, and the album was put on hold. Then Irish pop star [[Sin?ad O\'Connor]] came to the rescue, collaborating with the band and helping them cope with their loss. \"[O\'Connor] blew into the studio on a windy November night and blew away again leaving us something incredibly emotional and powerful,\" McNally told Katz. \"We had this track we didn\'t know what to do with. Sin?ad scribbled a few lyrics and bang! She left us completely choked up.\"{{full|date=November 2012}} So taken was the band with O\'Connor\'s song, \"Release,\" that they used the name for the title of their album. \'\'[[Volume 2: Release]]\'\' hit the music stores in 1999, and by the spring of 2000 it had sold more than half a million copies worldwide.\n\nIn 2000 the group was nominated for a [[Grammy Award]] in the Best World Music category. The band, composed at the time of eight members from six countries (England, [[Senegal]], Guinea, Ireland, France and [[Kenya]]), took pride in its ability to bring people together through music. \"We can communicate anywhere at any corner of the planet and feel that we\'re at home,\" McNally told Patrick MacDonald of [[The Seattle Times]]\'\'. \"We\'re breaking down categories of world music and rock music and black music. We leave a door open to communicate with each other\'s traditions. And it\'s changed our lives\".{{full|date=November 2012}}\n\nIn 2001 the group released \'\'[[Volume 3: Further in Time]]\'\', which climbed to number one on Billboard\'s Top World Music Albums chart. Featuring guest spots by Peter Gabriel and [[Robert Plant]], the album also incorporated a heightened African sound. \"On the first two records, the pendulum swung more toward the Celtic, London club side of the equation,\" Emmerson told the Irish Times\'s Carroll. \"For this one, we wanted to have more African vocals and input than we\'d done before.\"{{full|date=November 2012}} Again the Afro Celt Sound System met with success. Chuck Taylor of Billboard magazine praised the album as \"a cultural phenomenon that bursts past the traditional boundaries of contemporary music.\"{{full|date=November 2012}} The single \"[[When You\'re Falling]]\", with vocals by Gabriel, became a radio hit in the United States.\n\nIn 2003, for the \'\'[[Seed]]\'\' album, they temporarily changed their name to the simpler \'\'\'Afrocelts\'\'\'; this was subsequently regarded as a mistake, and they reverted to the longer and more familiar band name for their subsequent albums, \'\'[[Pod (Afro Celt Sound System album)|Pod]]\'\', a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums, \'\'[[Volume 5: Anatomic]]\'\' (their fifth studio album), and \'\'[[Capture - Afro Celt Sound System 1995-2010]]\".\n\nThey played a number of shows to promote \'\'Volume 5: Anatomic\'\' in 2006 and summer 2007, ending with a gig in Korea,[{{cite web|url=http://www.afrocelts.org/wst_page9.html |title=Afro Celt Sound System Fan Website - ACSS News |publisher=Afrocelts.org |date= |accessdate=2014-07-15}}] before taking an extended break to work on side projects, amongst them \'\'[[The Imagined Village]]\'\' featuring Simon Emmerson and Johnny Kalsi. Starting in the summer of 2010, the band performed a series of live shows to promote a new 2-CD album, \'\'[[Capture - Afro Celt Sound System 1995-2010]]\'\', released on 6 September 2010 on Real World Records. Further performances continue to the present day, and a new album-in-progress titled \'\'Born\'\' was announced on their website in 2014.\n\n==Band members==\n\nWhen Afro Celt Sound System began their musical journey in the mid-1990s during the [[Real World Records|Real World]] Recording Week, the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non-existent. However, over time, a combination of people became most often associated with the name Afro Celt Sound System (while \'\'Volume 5: Anatomic\'\' only lists Emmerson, McNally, ? Lion?ird and Russell as regulars):\n\n# [[Simon Emmerson]] ([[guitar]], production)\n# [[James McNally (musician)|James McNally]] ([[Tin whistle|whistle]], [[Keyboards]], [[bodhr?n]], [[accordion]], production)\n# [[N\'Faly Kouyate]] ([[kora (instrument)|kora]], [[Balafon|balaphon]], vocals)\n# [[Ian Markin]] (acoustic and electronic drums)\n# [[Babara Bangoura]] ([[djembe]], [[talking drum]])\n# [[Dav Daheley]] ([[dhol]], [[tabla]], percussion)\n# [[Jimmy Mahon]] ([[uillean pipes]], [[tin whistle]], [[flute]])\n# [[Demba Barry]] (Senegalese dancing)\n# [[Martin Russell]] (keyboards, producing, engineering, programming)\n\nOther musicians who have performed with Afro Celt Sound System include: [[Iarla ? Lion?ird]], [[Peter Gabriel]], [[Robert Plant]], [[Pete Lockett]], [[Sin?ad O\'Connor]], [[Johnny Kalsi]], [[Pina Kollar]], [[Dorothee Munyaneza]], [[Sevara Nazarkhan]], [[Simon Massey]], [[Jesse Cook]], [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]], [[Eileen Ivers]], [[Mundy]], [[Demba Barry]], [[Mair?ad N? Mhaonaigh]] and [[Ciar?n Tourish]] of [[Altan (band)|Altan]], [[Ronan Browne]], [[Michael McGoldrick]], [[Myrdhin]], [[Shooglenifty]], [[Mairead Nesbitt]], [[Davy Spillane]], [[Jonas Bruce]], [[Heather Nova]], [[Julie Murphy]] and [[Ayub Ogada]].\n\n== Discography ==\n# \'\'[[Volume 1: Sound Magic]]\'\' (1996)\n# \'\'[[Volume 2: Release]]\'\' (1999)\n# \'\'[[Volume 3: Further in Time]]\'\' (2001)\n# \'\'[[Seed (Afro Celt Sound System album)|Seed]]\'\' (2003)\n# \'\'[[Pod (Afro Celt Sound System album)|Pod]]\'\' (Remix album) (2004)\n# \'\'[[Volume 5: Anatomic]]\'\' (2005)\n# \'\'[[Capture - Afro Celt Sound System 1995-2010]]\'\' (2010) (compilation)\n\nThey also recorded the soundtrack for the PC game \'\'[[Magic and Mayhem]]\'\', released in 1998.\n\n==References==\n{{Reflist}}\n\n==External links==\n{{commons category|Afro Celt Soundsystem}}\n*[http://afroceltsoundsystem.com/ Afro Celt Sound System website]\n\n\n{{Afro Celt Sound System}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Afro Celt Sound System}}\n[[Category:Celtic fusion groups]]\n[[Category:Real World Records artists]]\n[[Category:British world music groups]]\n[[Category:Musical groups established in 1995]]'
'Ancient_philosophy' '{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}\n{{Refimprove|date=October 2011}}\n\n{{histphil}}\nThis page lists some links to \'\'\'ancient philosophy\'\'\'. In [[Western philosophy]], the spread of [[Christianity]] in the [[Roman Empire]] marked the ending of [[Hellenistic philosophy]] and ushered in the beginnings of [[Medieval philosophy]], whereas in [[Eastern philosophy]], the [[spread of Islam]] through the [[Caliphate|Arab Empire]] marked the end of [[#Ancient Iranian philosophy|Old Iranian philosophy]] and ushered in the beginnings of [[early Islamic philosophy]].\n\n==Introduction==\nGenuinely philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. [[Karl Jaspers]] termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an [[Axial Age]] in human thought.\n\n==Ancient Chinese philosophy==\n{{Main|Chinese philosophy}}\nChinese philosophy is the dominant philosophical thought in China and other countries within the [[East Asian cultural sphere]] that [[Adoption of Chinese literary culture|share a common language]], including Japan, [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]].\n\n===Schools of thought===\n\n====Hundred Schools of Thought====\n{{main|Hundred Schools of Thought}}\nThe Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophers and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BCE,[[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112694/Chinese-philosophy#ref171469 \"Chinese philosophy\"], Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed 4/6/2014] an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period ? known in its earlier part as the [[Spring and Autumn]] period and the [[Warring States]] period ? in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of [[Chinese philosophy]] because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]]s and [[social consciousness]] up to the present day in East Asian countries. The [[intellectual]] society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of [[government]], [[war]], and [[diplomacy]]. This period ended with the rise of the [[Qin Dynasty]] and the subsequent [[Burning of books and burying of scholars|purge]] of dissent. The [[Book of Han]] lists ten major schools, they are:\n* [[Confucianism]], which teaches that human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. A main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one\'s life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of \'\'[[Ren (Confucianism)|ren]]\'\' and \'\'[[Yi (Confucianism)|yi]]\'\'.[{{citation|url=http://arts.hkbu.edu.hk/~pclo/e5.pdf|author=Lo, Ping-cheung|title=Confucian Ethic of Death with Dignity and Its Contemporary Relevance|year=1999|publisher=Society of Christian Ethics}}]\n* [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], which maintained that human nature was incorrigibly selfish; accordingly, the only way to preserve the social order was to impose discipline from above, and to see to a strict enforcement of laws. The Legalists exalted the state above all, seeking its prosperity and martial prowess over the welfare of the common people.\n* [[Taoism]], a philosophy which emphasizes the [[Three Treasures (Taoism)|Three Jewels of the Tao]]: [[compassion]], [[moderation]], and [[humility]], while Taoist thought generally focuses on [[nature]], the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; [[health]] and [[longevity]]; and [[wu wei]] (action through inaction). Harmony with the [[Universe]], or the source thereof (Tao), is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.\n* [[Mohism]], which advocated the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that \"everyone is equal before heaven\", and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist [[empiricism]]; he believed that human cognition ought to be based on one\'s perceptions – one\'s sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction. Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant.\n* Naturalism, the [[School of Naturalists]] or the Yin-yang school, which synthesized the concepts of [[yin-yang]] and the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]]; [[Zou Yan]] is considered the founder of this school.[{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan|title=Zou Yan|publisher=Encyclop?dia Britannica|accessdate=1 March 2011}}]\n* Agrarianism, or the [[School of Agrarianism]], which advocated peasant [[utopian]] [[communalism]] and [[egalitarianism]].[{{cite book|last= Deutsch |first=Eliot | author2 = Ronald Bontekoei|year=1999 | page= 183|title=A companion to world philosophies|publisher=Wiley Blackwell}}] The Agrarians believed that Chinese society should be modeled around that of the early sage king [[Shen Nong]], a folk hero which was portrayed in Chinese literature as \"working in the fields, along with everyone else, and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be reached.\"[The significance of Purusha Sukta in [http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/invoc/in_pur.html Daily Invocations] by Swami Krishnananda]\n* [[Saptarishi|Seven Rishis]] — Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.[P. 285 \'\'Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary\'\' By S. Devadas Pillai]\n* [[Rishi|Other Vedic Rishis]] — Gritsamada, Sandilya, Kanva etc.\n* [[Rishabha (hindu sage)|Rishaba]] — [[Rishi]] mentioned in [[Rig Veda]] and later in several Puranas, and believed by Jains to be the first official religious [[guru]] of [[Jainism]], as accredited by later followers.\n* [[Yajnavalkya]] — one of the [[Veda|Vedic]] sages, greatly influenced [[Buddhism|Buddhistic]] thought.\n* [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]] — one of the seers of the [[Atharva Veda]] and author of [[Mundaka Upanishad]].\n* [[Uddalaka|Uddalaka Aruni]] — an Upanishadic sage who authored major portions of [[Ch?ndogya Upani?ad]].\n* Ashvapati — a King in the [[Mahajanapada|Later Vedic age]] who authored Vaishvanara Vidya of [[Ch?ndogya Upani?ad]].\n* [[Ashtavakra]] — an Upanishadic Sage mentioned in the [[Mahabharata]], who authored [[Ashtavakra Gita]].\n\n====Philosophers of Axial Age (600?185 BCE)====\n* [[Kanada (philosopher)|Kanada]] (c. 600 BCE), founded the philosophical school of [[Vaisheshika]], gave theory of [[atomism]]\n* [[Mahavira]] (599–527 BCE) — heavily influenced [[Jainism]], the 24th [[Tirthankara]] of [[Jainism]].\n[[File:Sermon in the Deer Park depicted at Wat Chedi Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg|150px|thumb|right|Buddha.]]\n* [[P??ini]] (520?460 BCE), grammarian, author of [[Ashtadhyayi]]\n* [[Kapila]] (c. 500 BCE), proponent of the [[Samkhya]] system of philosophy.\n* [[Badarayana]] (lived between 500 BCE and 400 BCE) — Author of [[Brahma Sutras]].\n* [[Pingala]] (c. 500 BCE), author of the \'\'[[Chandas shastra]]\'\'\n* [[Gautama Buddha]] (c. 480 ? c. 400 BCE), founder of [[Buddhist]] school of thought\n* [[Chanakya]] (c. 350 ? c. 275 BCE), author of [[Arthashastra]], professor ([[acharya]]) of political science at the [[Takshashila University]]\n* [[Pata?jali]] (c. 200 BCE), developed the philosophy of [[Raja Yoga]] in his [[Yoga Sutra]]s.\n* [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad|Shvetashvatara]] — Author of earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of [[Shaivism]].\n\n====Philosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE ? 600 CE)====\n* [[Ak?ap?da Gotama|Gotama]] (c. 2nd?3rd century CE), wrote [[Jaimini]], author of [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras]].\n* [[Dign?ga]] (c. 500), one of the founders of Buddhist school of [[Indian logic]].\n* [[Asanga]] (c. 300), exponent of the [[Yogacara]]\n* [[Bhartrihari]] (c 450?510 CE), early figure in Indic linguistic theory\n* [[Bodhidharma]] (c. 440?528 CE), founder of the [[Zen]] school of [[Buddhism]]\n* [[Siddhasen Diwakar|Siddhasena Div?kara]] (5th Century CE), Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as, Ny?y?vat?ra (on Logic) and Sanmatis?tra (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge)\n* [[Vasubandhu]] (c. 300 CE), one of the main founders of the Indian [[Yogacara]] school.\n* [[Kundakunda]] (2nd Century CE), exponent of Jain mysticism and [[Anekantavada#Nayav?da|Jain nayas]] dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter, author of [[Pancastikayasara|Pa?c?stik?yas?ra]] (Essence of the Five Existents), the [[Pravacanasara|Pravacanas?ra]] (Essence of the Scripture) and the [[Samayasara|Samayas?ra]] (Essence of the Doctrine)\n* [[Nagarjuna]] (c. 150 ? 250 CE), the founder of the [[Madhyamaka]] (Middle Path) school of [[Mah?y?na Buddhism]].\n* [[Umasvati|Um?sv?ti]] or Umasvami (2nd Century CE), author of first Jain work in Sanskrit, [[Tattvartha Sutra|Tattv?rthas?tra]], expounding the [[Jain philosophy]] in a most systematized form acceptable to all sects of Jainism.\n\n==Ancient Iranian philosophy==\n[[File:Sanzio 01 Zoroaster Ptolmey.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Zarathustra as depicted in [[Raphael]]\'s [[The School of Athens]] beside Raphael who appears as the ancient painter [[Apelles of Kos]].]]\n{{Main|Iranian philosophy}}\nSee also: \'\'[[Dualism]], [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)]]\'\'\n\nWhile there are ancient relations between the Indian [[Vedas]] and the Iranian [[Avesta]], the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being\'s position in society and their view of man\'s role in the universe. The first charter of [[human rights]] by [[Cyrus the Great]] as understood in the [[Cyrus cylinder]] is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by [[Zarathustra]] and developed in [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] schools of thought of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Era]] of [[Iranian history]].[Philip G. Kreyenbroek: \"Morals and Society in Zoroastrian Philosophy\" in \"Persian Philosophy\". Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy: Brian Carr and Indira Mahalingam. Routledge, 2009.][Mary Boyce: \"The Origins of Zoroastrian Philosophy\" in \"Persian Philosophy\". Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy: Brian Carr and Indira Mahalingam. Routledge, 2009.]\n\n===Schools of thought===\nIdeas and tenets of Zoroastrian schools of Early Persian philosophy are part of many works written in [[Middle Persian]] and of the extant scriptures of the zoroastrian religion in [[Avestan language]]. Among these are treatises such as the [[Shikand-gumanic Vichar]] by Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan, selections of [[Denkard]], Wizidag?h?-? Z?tspram (\"Selections of Z?tspram\") as well as older passages of the book Avesta, the [[Gathas]] which are attributed to Zarathustra himself and regarded as his \"direct teachings\".[An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia. From Zoroaster to \'Umar Khayyam. S. H. Nasr & M. Aminrazavi. I. B. Tauris Publishers, London & New York, 2008. ISBN 978-1845115418.] \n====[[Iranian philosophy#Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism]]====\n* [[Zarathustra]]\n* [[Jamasp]]\n* [[Ostanes]]\n* [[Shikand-gumanic Vichar|Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan]][Zurvan. A Zoroastrian Dilemma. Robert Charles Zaehner. Biblo and Tannen, 1972. ISBN 0-8196-0280-9.]\n* [[Denkard#Date and authorship|Adurfarnbag Farroxzadan]][Sasanian Iran - intellectual life. A. Tafazzoli and A. L. Khromov in: History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilization. B. A. Litvinsky, Zhang Guand-Da, R. Shabani Samghabadi. Unesco, 1996. ISBN 9231032119.]\n* [[Denkard#Date and authorship|Adurbad Emedan]][Mansour Shaki. \'\'Falsafa. Philosophy in the pre-Islamic period\'\'. Encyclop?dia Iranica. Volume IX. 1999. ISBN 0-933273-35-5.][Prods Oktor Skjaervo. \'\'Bardesanes\'\'. Encyclop?dia Iranica. Volume III. Fasc. 7?8. ISBN 0-7100-9121-4.]\n====[[Iranian philosophy#Manichaeism|Manichaeism]]====\n* [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] (c. 216 ? 276 CE)\n* [[Mar Ammo|Ammo]][David A. Scott. \'\'Manichaean Views of Buddhism\'\' in: History of Religions. Vol. 25, No. 2, Nov. 1985. University of Chicago Press.] \n====[[Iranian Philosophy#Mazdakism|Mazdakism]]====\n* [[Mazdak#Origins|Mazdak the Elder]][Yarshater, Ehsan. 1983. The Cambridge history of Iran, volume 2. pp. 995?997]\n* [[Mazdak]] (died c. 524 or 528 CE)\n====[[Zurvanism]]====\n* [[Zurvanism#Aesthetic Zurvanism|Aesthetic Zurvanism]]\n* [[Zurvanism#Materialist Zurvanism|Materialist Zurvanism]]\n* [[Zurvanism#Fatalistic Zurvanism|Fatalistic Zurvanism]]\n\n===Philosophy and the Empire===\n* Political philosophy\n** [[Letter of Tansar|Tansar]]\n* [[University of Gundishapur]]\n** [[Burzoe|Borzouye]]\n** [[Bukhtishu|Bakhtshooa Gondishapuri]]\n* [[Khosrau I|Emperor Khosrau\'s]] [[Khosrau I#Philosopher King|philosophical discourses]]\n** [[Paul the Persian]]\n\n===Literature===\n* [[Pahlavi literature]]\n\n==Ancient Jewish philosophy==\nSee also: \'\'[[Jewish philosophy]]\'\'\n\n===First Temple (c. 900 BCE to 587 BCE)===\n* [[Joel (prophet)|Joel]] (9th?5th century BCE)\n* [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] (8th century BCE)\n* [[Hosea]] (8th century BCE)\n* [[Micah]] (8th century BCE)\n* [[Proto-Isaiah]] (8th century BCE)\n* [[Ezekiel]] (7th century BCE)\n* [[Habbakuk]] (7th century BCE)\n* [[Jeremiah]] (7th century BCE)\n* [[Nahum]] (7th century BCE)\n* [[Zephaniah]] (7th century BCE)\n\n===Assyrian exile (587 BCE to 516 BCE)===\n* [[Deutero-Isaiah]] (6th century BCE)\n* [[Haggai]] (6th century BCE)\n* [[Obadiah]] (6th century BCE)\n* [[Book of Isaiah|Trito-Isaiah]] (6th century BCE)\n* [[Zechariah (Hebrew prophet)|Zechariah]] (6th century BCE)\n\n===Second Temple (516 BCE to 70 CE)===\n* [[Malachi]] (5th century BCE)\n* [[Ecclesiastes|Koheleth]] (5th ? 2nd century BCE)\n* [[Shimon ben Yeshua ben Eliezer ben Sira]] (2nd century BCE)\n* [[Hillel the Elder]] (c. 110 BCE ? 10CE)\n* [[Philo of Alexandria]] (30 BCE ? 45 CE)\n\n===Early Roman exile (70 CE to c. 600 CE)===\n* [[Akiva ben Joseph]] (c. 40 ? c. 137 CE)\n\n==See also==\n*[[Index of ancient philosophy articles]]\n\n==References==\n{{reflist}}\n\n==Further reading==\n\n*Luchte, James, \'\'Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn\'\', in series, \'\'Bloomsbury Studies in Ancient Philosophy\'\', Bloomsbury Publishing, London, 2011. ISBN 978-0567353313\n\n==External links==\n* {{InPho|taxonomy|2306}}\n\n{{Philosophy topics}}\n{{Greek schools of philosophy}}\n\n\n{{Authority control}}\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Ancient Philosophy}}\n[[Category:Ancient philosophy| ]]\n[[Category:History of philosophy]]\n[[Category:Philosophy by period]]'
'Anaximander' '{{About|the Pre-Socratic philosopher}}\n{{Infobox philosopher\n| region = Western Philosophy\n| era = [[Pre-Socratic philosophy]]\n| image = AnaximanderRelief.jpg\n| caption = Relief representing Anaximander (Roma, Museo Nazionale Romano). Probably Roman copy of an earlier Greek original. This is the only existing image of Anaximander from the ancient world.\n|name = Anaximander\n|birth_date = c. 610 BC\n\n|death_date = c. 546 BC\n|school_tradition = [[Ionians|Ionian Philosophy]], [[Milesian school]], [[Naturalism (philosophy)|Naturalism]]\n|main_interests = [[Metaphysics]], [[astronomy]], [[geometry]], [[geography]]\n|influences = [[Thales|Thales of Miletus]]\n|influenced = All pre-socratic philosophy, in particular: [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]], [[Pythagoras]], [[Democritus]], [[Greek astronomy]] \n|notable_ideas = {{nowrap|The [[Apeiron (cosmology)|apeiron]] is the [[arche]]
[[Evolution]]ary view of living things[[[Diels?Kranz numbering system|DK]] fragments A 11 and A 30][[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/23149/Anaximander \"Anaximander\"]. \'\'[[Encyclop?dia Britannica Online]]\'\'.]
Earth floats unsupported
Mechanical model of the sky
Water of rain from evaporation}}\n}}\n\'\'\'Anaximander\'\'\' ({{IPAc-en|?|?|n|?|k|s|?|?|m|?|n|d|?r}}; {{lang-grc-gre|????????????}} \'\'Anaximandros\'\'; c. 610 ? c. 546 BC) was a [[pre-Socratic]] [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] philosopher who lived in [[Miletus]],[\"Anaximander\" in \'\'[[Chambers\'s Encyclop?dia]]\'\'. London: [[George Newnes]], 1961, Vol. 1, p. 403.] a city of [[Ionia]] (in modern-day Turkey). He belonged to the [[Milesian school]] and learned the teachings of his master [[Thales]]. He succeeded Thales and became the second master of that school where he counted [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]] and, arguably, [[Pythagoras]] amongst his pupils.[{{cite book|url=https://www.google.de/search?tbm=bks&hl=en&q=Porphyry%2C+Life+of+Pythagoras+Anaximander|title=Porphyry, Life of Pythagoras Anaximander}}]\n\nLittle of his life and work is known today. According to available historical documents, he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies,[[[Themistius]], \'\'Oratio\'\' 36, ?317] although only one fragment of his work remains. Fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of the man.\n\nHe was an early proponent of [[science]] and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long.[Park, David (2005) \'\'The Grand Contraption\'\', Princeton University Press ISBN 0-691-12133-8] Like many thinkers of his time, Anaximander\'s contributions to [[philosophy]] relate to many disciplines. In [[astronomy]], he tried to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. In physics, his postulation that the indefinite (or [[Apeiron (cosmology)|apeiron]]) was the source of all things led Greek philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction. His knowledge of [[geometry]] allowed him to introduce the [[gnomon]] in Greece. He created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the advancement of [[geography]]. He was also involved in the [[politics]] of Miletus and was sent as a leader to one of its colonies.\n\n==Biography==\n[[Image:Anaximander.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Detail of [[Raphael]]\'s painting \'\'[[The School of Athens]]\'\', 1510?1511. This could be a representation of Anaximander leaning towards [[Pythagoras]] on his left.[This character is traditionally associated with [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]], however his face offering similarities with the relief of Anaximander (image in the box above), it could be a representation of the philosopher. See http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/SchoolAthens2.htm for a description of the characters in this painting.]]]\n\nAnaximander, son of Praxiades, was born in the third year of the 42nd [[Olympiad]] (610 BC).[[[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]] (?), \'\'[[Refutation of All Heresies]]\'\' (I, 5)] According to [[Apollodorus of Athens]], Greek grammarian of the 2nd century BC, he was sixty-four years old during the second year of the 58th Olympiad (547?546 BC), and died shortly afterwards.[In his \'\'Chronicles\'\', as reported by [[Diogenes La?rtius]], \'\'[[Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers]]\'\' (II, 2).]\n\nEstablishing a timeline of his work is now impossible, since no document provides chronological references. [[Themistius]], a 4th-century [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[rhetoric]]ian, mentions that he was the \"first of the known Greeks to publish a written document on nature.\" Therefore, his texts would be amongst the earliest written in [[prose]], at least in the Western world. By the time of [[Plato]], his philosophy was almost forgotten, and [[Aristotle]], his successor [[Theophrastus]] and a few [[Doxography|doxographers]] provide us with the little information that remains. However, we know from Aristotle that Thales, also from Miletus, precedes Anaximander. It is debatable whether Thales actually was the teacher of Anaximander, but there is no doubt that Anaximander was influenced by Thales\' theory that everything is derived from water. One thing that is not debatable is that even the ancient Greeks considered Anaximander to be from the Monist school which began in Miletus with Thales followed by Anaximander and finished with [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]].[Richard D. McKirahan, \'\'Philosophy before Socrates\'\', Ch 5, 32?34] 3rd-century [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] rhetorician [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] depicts him as leader of the Milesian colony to [[Sozopol|Apollonia]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast, and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. Indeed, \'\'Various History\'\' (III, 17) explains that philosophers sometimes also dealt with political matters. It is very likely that leaders of Miletus sent him there as a legislator to create a constitution or simply to maintain the colony?s allegiance.\n\n==Theories==\nAnaximander\'s theories were influenced by the [[Greek mythology|Greek mythical]] tradition, and by some ideas of [[Thales]] ? the father of philosophy ? as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the East{{Dubious|date=October 2012}} (especially by the Babylonian astrologers).[C. Mosse (1984) \'\'La Grece archaique d\' Homere a Eschyle\'\'. Edition du Seuil. p236] All these were elaborated rationally. In his desire to find some universal principle, he assumed, like traditional religion, the existence of a cosmic order; and in elaborating his ideas on this he used the old mythical language which ascribed divine control to various spheres of reality. This was a common practice for the Greek philosophers in a society which saw gods everywhere, therefore they could fit their ideas into a tolerably elastic system.[C. M. Bowra (1957) \'\'The Greek experience\'\'. World publishing Company. Cleveland and New York. p168,169.]\n\nSome scholars saw a gap between the existing mythical and the new [[rationalism|rational]] way of thought which is the main characteristic of the [[Archaic Greece|archaic period]] (8th to 6th century BC) in the Greek [[city states]].[[[Herbert Ernest Cushman]] claims Anaximander has \"the first European philosophical conception of god\", \'\'A beginner\'s history of philosophy\'\', Volume 1 pg. 24] Because of this, they did not hesitate to speak for a \"Greek miracle\". But if we follow carefully the course of Anaximander\'s ideas, we will notice that there was not such an abrupt break as initially appears. The basic elements of nature ([[Water (classical element)|water]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Fire (classical element)|fire]], [[Earth (classical element)|earth]]) which the first Greek philosophers believed that constituted the universe represent in fact the primordial forces of previous thought. Their collision produced what the mythical tradition had called cosmic harmony. In the old cosmogonies ? [[Hesiod]] (8th ? 7th century BC) and [[Pherecydes of Syros|Pherecydes]] (6th century BC) ? [[Zeus]] establishes his order in the world by destroying the powers which were threatening this harmony, (the [[Titans (mythology)|Titans]]). Anaximander claimed that the cosmic order is not [[monarchic]] but [[geometric]] and this causes the equilibrium of the earth which is lying in the centre of the universe. This is the projection on nature of a new political order and a new space organized around a centre which is the static point of the system in the society as in nature.[C. Mosse (1984) \'\'La Grece archaique d\'Homere a Eschyle\'\'. Edition du Seuil. p 235] In this space there is \'\'isonomy\'\' (equal rights) and all the forces are symmetrical and transferrable. The decisions are now taken by the assembly of [[Glossary of rhetorical terms#Demos|demos]] in the [[agora]] which is lying in the middle of the city.[J. P. Vernart (1982) \'\'Les origins de la pensee grecque\'\'. PUF Pariw. p 128, J. P. Vernart (1982) \'\'The origins of the Greek thought\'\'. Cornell University Press.]\n\nThe same \'\'rational\'\' way of thought led him to introduce the abstract [[Apeiron (cosmology)|apeiron]] (indefinite, infinite, boundless, unlimited[[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29pei%2Frwn2 ???????], \nHenry George Liddell, Robert Scott, \'\'A Greek-English Lexicon\'\', on Perseus]) as an origin of the universe, a concept that is probably influenced by the original [[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]] (gaping void, abyss, formless state) of the mythical [[Greece|Greek]] [[cosmogony]] from which everything else appeared.[\'\'The Theogony of Hesiod\'\', Transl. H. G. Evelyn White, 736?740] It also takes notice of the mutual changes between the four elements. Origin, then, must be something else unlimited in its source, that could create without experiencing decay, so that genesis would never stop.[Aetios, I 3,3 [ [[Pseudo-Plutarch]]; DK 12 A 14.]; Aristotle, \'\'Phys.\'\' ?5,204b 23sq. [DK 12 A 16.]]\n\n===Apeiron===\n{{Main|Apeiron (cosmology)|Matter#Origins)}}\n\nThe \'\'Refutation\'\' attributed to [[Hippolytus of Rome]] (I, 5), and the later 6th century Byzantine philosopher [[Simplicius of Cilicia]], attribute to Anaximander the earliest use of the word \'\'ape?ron\'\' ({{lang|grc|???????}} \"infinite\" or \"limitless\") to designate the original principle. He was the first philosopher to employ, in a philosophical context, the term \'\'[[Arche|arch?]]\'\' ({{lang|grc|????}}), which until then had meant beginning or origin. For him, it became no longer a mere point in time, but a source that could perpetually give birth to whatever will be. The indefiniteness is spatial in early usages as in [[Homer]] (indefinite sea) and as in [[Xenophanes]] (6th century BC) who said that the earth went down indefinitely (to apeiron) i.e. beyond the imagination or concept of men.[{{Cite book|title=The Presocratic Philosophers|author=G. S. Kirk|author2=J. E. Raven|author3=M.Schofield|last-author-amp=yes|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=kFpd86J8PLsC&pg|isbn=978-0-521-27455-5|page=110}}]\n\nAristotle writes (\'\'[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]\'\', I III 3?4) that the [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|Pre-Socratics]] were searching for the element that constitutes all things. While each pre-Socratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element ([[water (classical element)|water]] for Thales and [[air (classical element)|air]] for Anaximenes), Anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (\'\'apeiron\'\'), subject to neither old age nor decay, that perpetually yielded fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived.[[[Pseudo-Plutarch]], \'\'The Doctrines of the Philosophers\'\' (I, 3).] He proposed the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher, Thales, who had claimed that the primary substance was water. The notion of temporal infinity was familiar to the Greek mind from remote antiquity in the religious concept of immortality and Anaximander\'s description was in terms appropriate to this conception. This arche is called \"eternal and ageless\". (Hippolytus (?), \'\'Refutation\'\', I,6,I;DK B2)[{{Cite book|title=A History of Greek Philosophy|author=William Keith Chambers Guthrie|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=http://books.google.com/?id=ogUR3V9wbbIC&pg|isbn=978-0-521-29420-1|page=83}}]\n\nFor Anaximander, the [[Principle (chemistry)|principle]] of things, the constituent of all substances, is nothing determined and not an element such as water in Thales\' view. Neither is it something halfway between air and water, or between air and fire, thicker than air and fire, or more subtle than water and earth.[[[Aristotle]], \'\'[[On Generation and Corruption]]\'\' (II, 5)] Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature ? for example, water can only be wet, never dry ? and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. He postulated the \'\'apeiron\'\' as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw around him.\n\nAnaximander explains how the [[Classical element|four elements]] of ancient physics ([[air (classical element)|air]], [[earth (classical element)|earth]], [[water (classical element)|water]] and [[fire (classical element)|fire]]) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through their interactions. Unlike other Pre-Socratics, he never defines this principle precisely, and it has generally been understood (e.g., by Aristotle and by [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]]) as a sort of primal [[Chaos (cosmogony)|chaos]]. According to him, the Universe originates in the separation of opposites in the primordial matter. It embraces the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directs the movement of things; an entire host of shapes and differences then grow that are found in \"all the worlds\" (for he believed there were many).\n\nAnaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (\'\'apeiron\'\'). The one surviving fragment of Anaximander\'s writing deals with this matter. Simplicius transmitted it as a quotation, which describes the balanced and mutual changes of the elements:[[[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]], \'\'Comments on Aristotle\'s Physics\'\' (24, 13):\n\n: \"{{lang|grc|???????????? [...] ????? ?\' ????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????????? ????? ?????????, ???\' ?????? ???? ????? ???????, ?? ?? ??????? ???????? ???? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ?? ? ??????? ???? ???? ????, ??? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????, ?????????????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????. ????? ?? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ????????? ??? ???????? ????????? ????? ?????????? ??? ??????? ?? ?? ?????? ??????????? ???????, ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ???????????? ??? ????????? ??? ??????? ?????, ???\' ????????????? ??? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ????????.}}\"\n\nIn [[Ancient Greek]] quotes usually blend with surrounding text. Consequently, deciding where they start and where they end is often difficult. However, it is generally accepted that this quote is not Simplicius\' own interpretation, {{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} but Anaximander\'s writing, in \"somewhat poetic terms\" as it is mentioned by Simplicius.][Curd, Patricia, \'\'A Presocratics Reader: Selected Fragments and Testimonia\'\' ([[Hackett Publishing]], 1996), p. 12.]\n\n\nWhence things have their origin,
\nThence also their destruction happens,
\nAccording to necessity;
\nFor they give to each other justice and recompense
\nFor their injustice
\nIn conformity with the ordinance of Time.\n
\n\nSimplicius mentions that Anaximander said all these \"in poetic terms\", meaning that he used the old mythical language. The goddess Justice ([[Dike (mythology)|Dike]]) keeps the cosmic order.\nThis concept of returning to the element of origin was often revisited afterwards, notably by Aristotle,[Aristotle, \'\'Metaphysics\'\', I, 3, 983 \'\'b\'\' 8?11; \'\'[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]\'\', III, 5, 204 \'\'b\'\' 33?34] and by the Greek [[Tragedy|tragedian]] [[Euripides]]: \"what comes from earth must return to earth.\"[Euripides\'\'[[The Suppliants (Euripides)|Supplices]]\'\', v. 532] [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], in his \'\'[[Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks]]\'\', stated that Anaximander viewed \"... all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance.\"[[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], \'\'[[Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks]]\'\' (1873) ? 4.] Physicist [[Max Born]], in commenting upon [[Werner Heisenberg]]\'s arriving at the idea that the elementary particles of [[quantum mechanics]] are to be seen as different manifestations, different quantum states, of one and the same ?primordial substance,?\' proposed that this primordial substance be called \'\'apeiron\'\'.[{{cite web \n|url= http://books.google.co.th/books?id=Bmcpsgp-Ml4C&pg=PA546&lpg=PA546&dq=Heisenberg+thus+arrived+at+the+idea+that+the+elementary+particles+are+to+be+seen+as+different+manifestations,+different+quantum+states,+of+one+and+the+same+%E2%80%9Cprimordial+substance.%E2%80%9D+The+elementary+particles,+it+would+follow,+are+the+only+possible+manifestations+of+matter.+Because+of+its+similarity+to+the+primordial+substance+hypothesized+by+Anaximander,+Born+called+this+substance+apeiron.&source=bl&ots=u4aEoYJT7o&sig=Nx7Mg5C0DcS1hvEuQ7q4RiqRT7M&hl=en&sa=X&ei=2H-6UJqHFpDIrQfrqoGoBw&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Heisenberg%20thus%20arrived%20at%20the%20idea%20that%20the%20elementary%20particles%20are%20to%20be%20seen%20as%20different%20manifestations%2C%20different%20quantum%20states%2C%20of%20one%20and%20the%20same%20%E2%80%9Cprimordial%20substance.%E2%80%9D%20The%20elementary%20particles%2C%20it%20would%20follow%2C%20are%20the%20only%20possible%20manifestations%20of%20matter.%20Because%20of%20its%20similarity%20to%20the%20primordial%20substance%20hypothesized%20by%20Anaximander%2C%20Born%20called%20this%20substance%20apeiron.&f=false\n|title= A Cultural History of Physics\n|last= K?roly \n|first= Simonyi|authorlink= Simonyi K?roly\n|date= April 7, 2012\n|work= Chapter 5.5.10 \'\'Back to the Apeiron?\'\'\n|publisher= googlebooks\n|accessdate= July 9, 2013\n}}]\n\n===Cosmology===\n[[Image:Anaximander cosmology-en.svg|thumb|left|280px|Map of Anaximander\'s universe]]\n\nAnaximander\'s bold use of non-[[Greek mythology|mythological]] explanatory hypotheses considerably distinguishes him from previous cosmology writers such as [[Hesiod]]. It confirms that pre-Socratic philosophers were making an early effort to demythify physical processes. His major contribution to history was writing the oldest prose document about the [[Universe]] and the origins of [[life]]; for this he is often called the \"Father of [[Cosmology]]\" and founder of astronomy. However, [[pseudo-Plutarch]] states that he still viewed celestial bodies as deities.[Pseudo-Plutarch, \'\'Doctrines of the Philosophers\'\', i. 7]\n\nAnaximander was the first to conceive a [[Mechanics|mechanical]] model of the [[world]]. In his model, the [[Earth]] floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything. It remains \"in the same place because of its indifference\", a point of view that Aristotle considered ingenious, but false, in \'\'[[On the Heavens]]\'\'.[Aristotle, \'\'On the Heavens\'\', ii, 13] Its curious shape is that of a [[Cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]][\"A column of stone\", [[A?tius (theologian)|Aetius]] reports in \'\'De Fide\'\' (III, 7, 1), or \"similar to a pillar-shaped stone\", pseudo-Plutarch (III, 10).] with a height one-third of its diameter. The flat top forms the inhabited world, which is surrounded by a circular oceanic mass.\n\nAnaximander\'s realization that the Earth floats free without falling and does not need to be resting on something has been indicated by many as the first cosmological revolution and the starting point of scientific thinking.[Carlo Rovelli, \"The First Scientist, Anaximander and his Legacy\" (Yardley: Westholme, 2011).][Daniel W. Graham, \"Explaining the Cosmos: The Ionian Tradition of Scientific Philosophy\" (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006).] Karl Popper calls this idea \"one of the boldest, most revolutionary, and most portentous ideas in the whole history of human thinking.\"[Karl Popper, \"Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge\" (New York: Routledge, 1998), pg 186.] Such a model allowed the concept that [[Astronomical object|celestial bodies]] could pass under the Earth, opening the way to Greek astronomy.\n\n[[Image:Persectives of Anaximander\'s universe.png|thumb|right|350px|Illustration of Anaximander\'s models of the universe. On the left, daytime in summer; on the right, nighttime in winter.]]\n\nAt the origin, after the separation of [[Temperature|hot and cold]], a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute. Consequently, the [[Sun]] was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the Earth on the farthest wheel, and an eclipse corresponded with the [[Occultation|occlusion]] of that hole. The diameter of the solar wheel was twenty-seven times that of the Earth (or twenty-eight, depending on the sources)[In \'\'Refutation\'\', it is reported that the circle of the Sun is twenty-seven times bigger than the Moon.] and the [[Moon|lunar]] wheel, whose fire was less intense, eighteen (or nineteen) times. Its hole could change shape, thus explaining [[lunar phase]]s. The [[star]]s and the [[planet]]s, located closer,[Aetius, \'\'De Fide\'\' (II, 15, 6)] followed the same model.[Most of Anaximander\'s model of the Universe comes from pseudo-Plutarch (II, 20?28):\n\n: \"[The Sun] is a circle twenty-eight times as big as the Earth, with the outline similar to that of a fire-filled chariot wheel, on which appears a mouth in certain places and through which it exposes its fire, as through the hole on a flute. [...] the Sun is equal to the Earth, but the circle on which it breathes and on which it\'s born is twenty-seven times as big as the whole earth. [...] [The eclipse] is when the mouth from which comes the fire heat is closed. [...] [The Moon] is a circle nineteen times as big as the whole earth, all filled with fire, like that of the Sun\".]\n\nAnaximander was the first astronomer to consider the Sun as a huge mass, and consequently, to realize how far from Earth it might be, and the first to present a system where the celestial bodies turned at different distances. Furthermore, according to Diogenes Laertius (II, 2), he built a [[celestial spheres|celestial sphere]]. This invention undoubtedly made him the first to realize the [[Axial tilt|obliquity]] of the [[Zodiac]] as the Roman philosopher [[Pliny the Elder]] reports in \'\'[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]\'\' (II, 8). It is a little early to use the term [[ecliptic]], but his knowledge and work on astronomy confirm that he must have observed the inclination of the celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the Earth to explain the seasons. The [[doxography|doxographer]] and theologian Aetius attributes to Pythagoras the exact measurement of the obliquity.\n\n===Multiple worlds===\nAccording to Simplicius, Anaximander already speculated on the plurality of [[world]]s, similar to [[atomism|atomists]] [[Leucippus]] and [[Democritus]], and later philosopher [[Epicurus]]. These thinkers supposed that worlds appeared and disappeared for a while, and that some were born when others perished. They claimed that this movement was eternal, \"for without movement, there can be no generation, no destruction\".[Simplicius, \'\'Commentary on Aristotle\'s Physics\'\', 1121, 5?9]\n\nIn addition to Simplicius, Hippolytus[Hippolytus (?), \'\'Refutation\'\' I, 6] reports Anaximander\'s claim that from the infinite comes the principle of beings, which themselves come from the heavens and the worlds (several doxographers use the plural when this philosopher is referring to the worlds within,[Notably pseudo-Plutarch (III, 2) and Aetius, (I, 3, 3; I, 7, 12; II, 1, 3; II, 1, 8).] which are often infinite in quantity). [[Cicero]] writes that he attributes different gods to the countless worlds.[\'\'On the Nature of the Gods\'\' (I, 10, 25):\n\n: \'\'\"Anaximandri autem opinio est nativos esse deos longis intervallis orientis occidentisque, eosque innumerabiles esse mundos.\"\'\'\n: \"For Anaximander, gods were born, but the time is long between their birth and their death; and the worlds are countless.\"]\n\nThis theory places Anaximander close to the Atomists and the [[Epicureanism|Epicureans]] who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared. In the [[Timeline of Western philosophers#Classical philosophers|timeline of the Greek history of thought]], some thinkers conceptualized a single world (Plato, Aristotle, [[Anaxagoras]] and [[Archelaus (philosopher)|Archelaus]]), while others instead speculated on the existence of a series of worlds, continuous or non-continuous (Anaximenes, Heraclitus, [[Empedocles]] and [[Diogenes Apolloniates|Diogenes]]).\n\n===Meteorological phenomena===\nAnaximander attributed some phenomena, such as [[thunder]] and [[lightning]], to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes.[Pseudo-Plutarch (III, 3):\n\n: \"Anaximander claims that all this is done by the wind, for when it happens to be enclosed in a thick cloud, then by its subtlety and lightness, the rupture produces the sound; and the scattering, because of the darkness of the cloud, creates the light.\"] In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.[According to [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], \'\'Naturales quaestiones\'\' (II, 18).]\n\nHe saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded Earth.[Pseudo-Plutarch (III, 16)] A part of that mass evaporated under the sun\'s action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant.[It is then very likely that by observing the moon and the tides, Anaximander thought the latter were the cause, and not the effect of the satellite\'s movement.] He explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun.[Pseudo-Plutarch (V, 19)] As the early humidity evaporated, dry land emerged and, in time, humankind had to adapt. The 3rd century Roman writer [[Censorinus]] reports:\n\n{{quote|text=Anaximander of Miletus considered that from warmed up water and earth emerged either fish or entirely fishlike animals. Inside these animals, men took form and embryos were held prisoners until puberty; only then, after these animals burst open, could men and women come out, now able to feed themselves.[Censorinus, \'\'De Die Natali\'\', IV, 7]|sign=|source=}}\n\nAnaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the Earth\'s climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales.[[[Plutarch]] also mentions Anaximander\'s theory that humans were born inside fish, feeding like sharks, and that when they could defend themselves, they were thrown ashore to live on dry land.] He thought that, considering humans\' extended infancy, we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently.\n\n==Other accomplishments==\n\n===Cartography===\n[[Image:Anaximander world map-en.svg|thumb|right|280px|Possible rendering of Anaximander\'s world map[According to John Mansley Robinson, \'\'An Introduction to Early Greek Philosophy\'\', Houghton and Mifflin, 1968.]]]\n\nBoth [[Strabo]] and [[Agathemerus]] (later Greek geographers) claim that, according to the geographer [[Eratosthenes]], Anaximander was the first to publish a map of the world. The map probably inspired the Greek historian [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] to draw a more accurate version. Strabo viewed both as the first geographers after [[Homer]].\n\nMaps were produced in ancient times, also notably in [[Egypt]], [[Lydia]], the [[Middle East]], and [[Babylon]]. Only some small examples survived until today. The unique example of a world map comes from late Babylonian tablet [[Babylonian Map of the World|BM 92687]] later than 9th century BCE but is based probably on a much older map. These maps indicated directions, roads, towns, borders, and geological features. Anaximander\'s innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient Greeks.\n\nSuch an accomplishment is more significant than it at first appears. Anaximander most likely drew this map for three reasons.[As established by Marcel Conche, \'\'Anaximandre. Fragments et t?moignages\'\', introduction (p. 43?47).] First, it could be used to improve navigation and trade between [[Miletus]]\'s colonies and other colonies around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Second, [[Thales]] would probably have found it easier to convince the Ionian [[Polis|city-states]] to join in a federation in order to push the [[Medes|Median]] threat away if he possessed such a tool. Finally, the philosophical idea of a global representation of the world simply for the sake of knowledge was reason enough to design one.\n\nSurely aware of the sea\'s convexity, he may have designed his map on a slightly rounded metal surface. The centre or ?navel? of the world ({{lang|grc|??????? ???}} \'\'omphal?s g?s\'\') could have been [[Delphi]], but is more likely in Anaximander\'s time to have been located near Miletus. The [[Aegean Sea]] was near the map\'s centre and enclosed by three continents, themselves located in the middle of the ocean and isolated like islands by sea and rivers. [[Europe]] was bordered on the south by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and was separated from [[Asia]] by the Black Sea, the [[Sea of Azov|Lake Maeotis]], and, further east, either by the [[Rioni River|Phasis River]] (now called the Rioni) or the [[Tanais]]. The [[Nile]] flowed south into the ocean, separating [[Ancient Libya|Libya]] (which was the name for the part of the then-known [[Africa]]n continent) from Asia.\n\n===Gnomon===\nThe \'\'[[Suda]]\'\' relates that Anaximander explained some basic notions of geometry. It also mentions his interest in the measurement of time and associates him with the introduction in [[Greece]] of the gnomon. In [[Lacedaemon]], he participated in the construction, or at least in the adjustment, of [[sundial]]s to indicate [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es.[These accomplishments are often attributed to him, notably by Diogenes Laertius (II, 1) and by the Roman historian [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], \'\'[[Preparation for the Gospel]]\'\' (X, 14, 11).] Indeed, a gnomon required adjustments from a place to another because of the difference in latitude.\n\nIn his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tip?s position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice.\n\nThe invention of the gnomon itself cannot be attributed to Anaximander because its use, as well as the division of days into twelve parts, came from the [[Babylonia]]ns. It is they, according to [[Herodotus]]\' [[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]] (II, 109), who gave the Greeks the art of time measurement. It is likely that he was not the first to determine the solstices, because no calculation is necessary. On the other hand, equinoxes do not correspond to the middle point between the positions during solstices, as the Babylonians thought. As the \'\'Suda\'\' seems to suggest, it is very likely that with his knowledge of geometry, he became the first Greek to accurately determine the equinoxes.\n\n===Prediction of an earthquake===\nIn his philosophical work [[De Divinatione]] (I, 50, 112), Cicero states that Anaximander convinced the inhabitants of [[Lacedaemon]] to abandon their city and spend the night in the country with their weapons because an earthquake was near.[[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/divinatione1.shtml \'\'Da Divinatione\'\' (in Latin)]] The city collapsed when the top of the [[Taygetus]] split like the stern of a ship. Pliny the Elder also mentions this anecdote (II, 81), suggesting that it came from an \"admirable inspiration\", as opposed to Cicero, who did not associate the prediction with divination.\n\n==Interpretations==\n[[Bertrand Russell]] in the \'\'[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|History of Western Philosophy]]\'\' interprets Anaximander\'s theories as an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth, fire, and water, all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others. Anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance between these elements, that where there was fire, ashes (earth) now exist.[Bertrand Russell, \'\'A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day\'\' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1946).] His Greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief in natural boundaries beyond which not even the gods could operate.\n\n[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], in \'\'[[Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks]]\'\', claimed that Anaximander was a pessimist who asserted that the primal being of the world was a state of indefiniteness. In accordance with this, anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness. In other words, Anaximander viewed \"...all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance\". (\'\'Ibid.\'\', ? 4) The world of individual objects, in this way of thinking, has no worth and should perish.[Friedrich Nietzsche, \'\'Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks\'\' (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway, 1962).]\n\n[[Martin Heidegger]] lectured extensively on Anaximander, and delivered a lecture entitled \"Anaximander\'s Saying\" which was subsequently included in \'\'Off the Beaten Track\'\'. The lecture examines the ontological difference and the oblivion of Being or \'\'[[Dasein]]\'\' in the context of the Anaximander fragment.[Martin Heidegger, \'\'Off the Beaten Track\'\' (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).] Heidegger\'s lecture is, in turn, an important influence on the French philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]].[Cf. Jacques Derrida, \'\'Margins of Philosophy\'\' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 66?7; Derrida, \"\'\'Geschlecht\'\' II: Heidegger\'s Hand,\" in [[John Sallis]] (ed.), \'\'Deconstruction and Philosophy\'\' (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 181?2; Derrida, \'\'Given Time: I. Counterfeit Money\'\' (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 159, n. 28.]\n\n==Works==\nAccording to the \'\'Suda\'\':[Themistius and Simplicius also mention some work \"on nature\". The list could refer to book titles or simply their topics. Again, no one can tell because there is no punctuation sign in Ancient Greek. Furthermore, this list is incomplete since the \'\'Suda\'\' ends it with {{lang|grc|???? ????}}, thus implying \"other works\".]\n\n* \'\'[[On Nature (Anaximander)|On Nature]]\'\' ({{lang|grc|???? ??????}} / \'\'Per? ph?se?s\'\')\n* \'\'Rotation of the Earth\'\' ({{lang|grc|??? ????????}} / \'\'G?s per?odos\'\')\n* \'\'On Fixed stars\'\' ({{lang|grc|???? ??? ???????}} / \'\'Per? t?n aplan?n\'\')\n* \'\'The [Celestial] Sphere\'\' ({{lang|grc|??????}} / \'\'Spha?ra\'\')\n\n==See also==\n{{Portal|Philosophy|Atlas}}\n* [[apeiron (cosmology)|apeiron]]\n* [[Milesian school]]\n* [[Pre-Socratic philosophy]]\n* [[Material monism]]\n* [[Indefinite monism]]\n\n==Footnotes==\n{{Reflist|30em}}\n\n==References==\n\n===Primary sources===\n* [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]]: \'\'Various History\'\' (III, 17)\n* [[A?tius (theologian)|A?tius]]: \'\'De Fide\'\' (I-III; V)\n* [[Agathemerus]]: \'\'A Sketch of Geography in Epitome\'\' (I, 1)\n* [[Aristotle]]: \'\'[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]]\'\' (II, 3) Translated by [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/meteorology/ E. W. Webster]\n* Aristotle: \'\'[[On Generation and Corruption]]\'\' (II, 5) Translated by [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/corruption/ H. H. Joachim]\n* Aristotle: \'\'[[On the Heavens]]\'\' (II, 13) Translated by [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/heavens/ J. L. Stocks]\n* {{Cite wikisource|author=Aristotle|wslink=Physics (Aristotle)|title=Physics}} (III, 5, 204 b 33?34)\n* [[Censorinus]]: \'\'De Die Natali\'\' (IV, 7) See original text at [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Censorinus/text*.html LacusCurtius]\n* {{Cite wikisource|title=On divination|author=Cicero|author-link=Cicero|year=1853|origyear=original: 44 BC|others=Trans. [[Charles Duke Yonge]]}} (I, 50, 112)\n* Cicero: \'\'On the Nature of the Gods\'\' (I, 10, 25)\n* {{ws|[[Diogenes La?rtius]], \'\'[[s:Lives of the Eminent Philosophers/Book II#Anaximander|Life of Anaximander]]\'\', translated by [[Robert Drew Hicks]] (1925)}}\n* [[Euripides]]: \'\'[[The Suppliants (Euripides)|The Suppliants]]\'\' (532) Translated by [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/e/euripides/suppliants/ E. P. Coleridge]\n* [[Eusebius of Caesarea]]: \'\'[[Preparation for the Gospel]]\'\' (X, 14, 11) Translated by [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Praeparatio_Evangelica_(The_Preparation_of_the_Gospel) E.H. Gifford]\n* Heidel, W.A. \'\'Anaximander\'s Book\'\': PAAAS, vol. 56, n.7, 1921, pp. 239?288.\n* [[Herodotus]]: \'\'[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]\'\' (II, 109) See original text in [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0125 Perseus project]\n* [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]] (?): \'\'Refutation of All Heresies\'\' (I, 5) Translated by [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-05/anf05-06.htm#TopOfPage Roberts and Donaldson]\n* [[Pliny the Elder]]: \'\'[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]\'\' (II, 8) See original text in [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0138:toc Perseus project]\n* [[Pseudo-Plutarch]]: \'\'The Doctrines of the Philosophers\'\' (I, 3; I, 7; II, 20?28; III, 2?16; V, 19)\n* [[Seneca the Younger]]: \'\'Natural Questions\'\' (II, 18)\n* [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]]: \'\'Comments on Aristotle\'s Physics\'\' (24, 13?25; 1121, 5?9)\n* [[Strabo]]: \'\'[[Geographica|Geography]]\'\' (I, 1) Books 1?7, 15?17 translated by [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/home.html H. L. Jones]\n* [[Themistius]]: \'\'Oratio\'\' (36, 317)\n* \'\'The [[Suda]]\'\' ([http://www.stoa.org/sol/ \'\'Suda On Line\'\'])\n\n===Secondary sources===\n*{{cite book|last=Brumbaugh|first=Robert S. |title=The Philosopher\'s of Greece|location=New York|publisher= Thomas Y. Crowell |date=1964}}\n*{{cite book |authorlink=John Burnet (classicist)|last=Burnet|first=John |title=Early Greek Philosophy |url=http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/burnet/index.htm |edition=3rd |location=London|publisher=Black|date=1920}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Conche\n| first=Marcel\n| title=Anaximandre: Fragments et t?moignages\n| date=1991\n| publisher=Presses universitaires de France\n| location=Paris\n| language=French\n| isbn=2-13-043785-0}} The default source; anything not otherwise attributed should be in Conche.\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Couprie\n| first=Dirk L.\n| author2=Robert Hahn\n| author3=Gerard Naddaf\n| title=Anaximander in Context: New Studies in the Origins of Greek Philosophy\n| date=2003\n| publisher=State University of New York Press\n| location=Albany\n| isbn=0-7914-5538-6}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Furley\n| first=David J.\n| author2=Reginald E. Allen\n| title=Studies in Presocratic Philosophy\n| volume=1\n| date=1970\n| publisher=Routledge\n| location=London\n| oclc=79496039}}\n*{{cite book|authorlink= W. K. C. Guthrie |last=Guthrie|first=W.K.C. |series=A History of Greek Philosophy|volume=1|title=The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans|location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1962}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Hahn\n| first=Robert\n| title=Anaximander and the Architects. The Contribution of Egyptian and Greek Architectural Technologies to the Origins of Greek Philosophy\n| publisher=State University of New York Press\n| location=Albany\n| isbn=978-0791447949\n| date=2001}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Heidegger\n| first=Martin\n| title=Off the Beaten Track\n| date=2002\n| publisher=Cambridge University Press\n| location=Cambridge\n| isbn=0-521-80114-1}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Kahn\n| first=Charles H.\n| title=Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology\n| date=1960\n| publisher=Columbia University Press\n| location=New York}}\n*{{cite book |authorlink=John Raven|last1=Kirk|first1=Geoffrey S.|first2=John E.|last2=Raven|title=The Presocratic Philosophers|edition=2nd|location= Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1983}}\n*{{cite book|last=Luchte|first=James|title=Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn|date=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|location=London|ISBN=978-0567353313}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Nietzsche\n| first=Friedrich\n| title=Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks\n| date=1962\n| publisher=Regnery\n| location=Chicago\n| isbn=0-89526-944-9}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Robinson\n| first=John Mansley\n| title=An Introduction to Early Greek Philosophy\n| date=1968\n| publisher=Houghton and Mifflin\n| isbn=0-395-05316-1}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Ross\n| first=Stephen David\n| title=Injustice and Restitution: The Ordinance of Time\n| date=1993\n| publisher=State University of New York Press\n| location=Albany\n| isbn=0-7914-1670-4}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Rovelli\n| first=Carlo \n| title=The First Scientist, Anaximander and his Legacy\n| date=2011\n| publisher=Westholme\n| location=Yardley\n| isbn=978-1-59416-131-5}}\n*{{cite book|last=Sandywell|first=Barry|title=Presocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse, c. 600?450 BC |volume=3|location=London|publisher=Routledge|date=1996}}\n*{{cite book|last=Seligman|first=Paul|title=The \"Apeiron\" of Anaximander|location=London|publisher=Athlone Press|date=1962}}\n* {{Cite book\n| last=Vernant\n| first=Jean-Pierre\n| title=The Origins of Greek Thought\n| date=1982\n| publisher=Cornell University Press\n| location=Ithaca\n| isbn=0-8014-9293-9}}\n*{{cite book|editor-last=Wheelwright|editor-first=Philip|title=The Presocratics|location=New York|publisher=Macmillan|date=1966}}\n*{{cite book|last=Wright|first=M.R.|title=Cosmology in Antiquity|location=London|publisher=Routledge|date=1995}}\n\n;Attribution\n*{{EB1911|wstitle=Anaximander}}\n\n==External links==\n* {{commons category inline|Anaximander}}\n* {{wikiquote-inline}}\n* {{wikisource-inline|Anaximander}}\n* {{wikisourcelang-inline|el|????????????|Anaximander}}\n* [http://philoctetes.free.fr/unianaximandre.htm \'\'Philoctete\'\' ? Anaximandre: Fragments] ((Grk icon)) {{fr icon}} {{en icon}}\n* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/anaximan.htm \'\'The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy\'\' ? Anaximander]\n* [http://www.dirkcouprie.nl/Anaximander-bibliography.htm Extensive bibliography by Dirk Couprie]\n* {{ScienceWorldBiography | urlname=Anaximander | title=Anaximander of Miletus (610-ca. 546 BC)}}\n* [http://demonax.info/doku.php?id=text:anaximander_fragments Anaximander entry by John Burnet] contains fragments of Anaximander\n\n{{Presocratics}}\n{{Greek astronomy}}\n{{Ancient Greece topics|state=autocollapse}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n[[Category:610 BC]]\n[[Category:546 BC]]\n[[Category:6th-century BC Greek people]]\n[[Category:6th-century BC philosophers]]\n[[Category:Natural philosophers]]\n[[Category:Ancient Greek astronomers]]\n[[Category:Ancient Greek cartographers]]\n[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]\n[[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]]\n[[Category:Ancient Milesians]]\n[[Category:Philosophers of ancient Ionia]]\n[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]\n[[Category:7th-century BC births]]\n[[Category:540s BC deaths]]'
'APL' '\'\'\'APL\'\'\' is an abbreviation, acronym, or initialism that may refer to:\n{{TOC right}}\n\n==Organizations==\n*[[Aden Protectorate Levies]], a militia force for local defense of the Aden Protectorate\n*[[Advanced Production and Loading]], a Norwegian marine engineering company formed in 1993\n*[[Amateur Poker League]], US amateur poker league\n*[[American Premier League]], A Twenty20 cricket league in United States of America\n*[[American President Lines]], a container transportation and shipping company\n*[[American Protective League]], a WWI era pro-war organization\n*[[Applied Physics Laboratory]], Johns Hopkins University\n*[[Association of Pension Lawyers]], UK\n*[[Irish Anti-Partition League]], a Northern Ireland political organisation\n*[[Aurora Public Library (disambiguation)]], several Aurora Public Libraries use the APL abbreviation\n\n==Science and technology==\n*[[Abductor pollicis longus muscle]], in the human hand\n*[[Acute promyelocytic leukemia]], a subtype of acute myelogenous leukemia\n*APL, US Navy hull classification for [[barracks craft]]\n*[[132524 APL]], an asteroid\n*[[Nampula Airport]], Mozambique, IATA code\n*[[Applied Physics Letters]], a physics journal also abbreviated as Appl. Phys. Lett.\n\n==Computers==\n* \'Address Prefix List\', a [[List of DNS record types|DNS record type]]\n*\'apl\', file extension of the [[Monkey\'s Audio]] metadata file\n* The [[APL (programming language)|APL programming language]] (computers)\n* [[Framewave]], formerly the APL (\'\'AMD Performance Library\'\'), a computer compiler library\n\n===Software licences===\n* [[Adaptive Public License]], an Open Source license from the University of Victoria, Canada\n* [[AROS Public License]], license of AROS Research Operating System, formerly Amiga Research Operating System\n\n==Other uses==\n*[[apl.de.ap]], pseudonym of Allan Pineda Lindo, a member of hip hop group The Black Eyed Peas\n\n{{disambiguation}}'
'Architect' '{{Other uses}}\n{{Redirect|Architects}}\n{{Refimprove| date = October 2014}}\n{{Infobox Occupation\n| name=Architects\n| image= [[Image:Architect.png|250px]]\n| caption= An architect at work, 1893.\n| official_names= Architect\n\n| type= [[Profession]]\n| activity_sector= [[Architecture]]
[[civil engineering]]
[[construction]]
[[project management]]
[[urban planning]]
[[interior design]]\n| competencies= engineering,technical knowledge, building design, planning and management skills\n| formation= see [[Architect#Professional requirements|professional requirements]]\n| employment_field=\n| related_occupation=\n| average_salary= see [[Architect#Earnings|earnings]]\n| field_of_study= Architecture\n}}\nAn \'\'\'architect\'\'\' is a person who plans, designs, and oversees the [[construction]] of [[buildings]]. To \'\'practice architecture\'\' means to provide services in connection with the design and construction of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings, that have as their principal purpose human occupancy or use.[http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/bills/60th_1st/3rd_read/b115.htm] Etymologically, \'\'architect\'\' derives from the Latin \'\'architectus\'\', which derives from the Greek \'\' (\'\'arkhi-\'\', chief + \'\'tekton\'\', builder), i.e., \'\'\'chief builder\'\'\'.[[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=architect Online Etymology of the term \"architect\"]]\n\nProfessionally, an architect\'s decisions affect public safety, and thus an architect must undergo specialized training consisting of advanced education and a \'\'practicum\'\' (or \'\'internship\'\') for practical experience to earn a [[Profession|license]] to practice [[architecture]]. Practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction (see below).\n\nThe terms \'\'\'architect\'\'\' and \'\'\'architecture\'\'\' are also used in the disciplines of [[landscape architecture]], [[naval architecture]] and often [[information technology]] (for example a network architect or [[software architect]]). In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms \"architect\"[\n] and \"landscape architect\" are legally protected.\n\n==Origins==\n{{Main|History of Architecture}}\nThroughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by [[artisan]]s?such as stone [[masonry|mason]]s and [[carpenter]]s, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times there was no clear distinction between architect and [[Civil engineering|engineer]]. In Europe, the titles \'\'architect\'\' and \'\'engineer\'\' were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person, often used interchangeably.[[https://books.google.com/books?id=VQYeHMGp2gwC&q=The+Architecture+of+the+Italian+Renaissance&dq=The+Architecture+of+the+Italian+Renaissance&pgis=1 \'\'The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance\'\'] Jacob Burckhardt ISBN 0-8052-1082-2][http://www.smweng.com/civil-engineering-definitions-and-history/civil-engineering-defined]\n\nIt is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the professional \'gentleman\' architect, separate from the hands-on craftsman. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, but became increasingly available after 1500. Pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals.[{{cite book|last=Pacey|first=Arnold|title=Medieval Architectural Drawing|year=2007|publisher=Tempus Publishing|location=Stroud|isbn=978-0-7524-4404-8|pages=225?227}}] Concurrently, the introduction of linear perspective and innovations such as the use of different projections to describe a three-dimensional building in two dimensions, together with an increased understanding of dimensional accuracy, helped building designers communicate their ideas.[[http://totallyhistory.com/filippo-brunelleschi Filippo Brunelleschi], Totally History]]]\nIn most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, often governmental may legally practice architecture. Such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. The use of terms and titles, and the representation of oneself as an architect is restricted to licensed individuals by law, although in general, derivatives such as \'\'[[architectural designer]]\'\' are not legally protected.\n\nTo practice architecture implies the ability to practice independently of supervision. The term \'\'[[building design]] professional\'\' (or \'\'Design professional)\'\', by contrast, is a much broader term that includes professionals who practice independently under an alternate profession, such as [[engineering]] professionals, or those who assist in the practice architecture under the supervision of a licensed architect, such as \'\'[[architectural technologist]]s\'\' and \'\'[[intern architect]]s\'\'. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses and other smaller structures.\n\n==Practice==\nIn the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the driving force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client. The commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building. Throughout the project (planning to occupancy), the architect co-ordinates a design team. [[Structural engineer|Structural]], [[mechanical engineer|mechanical]], and [[electrical engineer]]s and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, who must ensure that the work is co-ordinated to construct the design.\n\n===Design role===\n[[File:Rem Koolhaas SCL.jpg|thumb|300px|Architect [[Rem Koolhaas]] inspecting a model of the [[Seattle Central Library]]]]\nThe architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements and nuances of the planned project. Often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make early proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief. The program or brief is essential to producing a project that meets all the needs of the owner ? it is a guide for the architect in creating the design concept.\n\nIt is generally expected that the design proposal(s) is both imaginative as well as pragmatic, but the precise extent and nature of these expectations will vary, depending on the place, time, finance, culture and available crafts and technology in which the design takes place.\n\nDesign of buildings is a very complex and demanding undertaking, no matter what the scale of the project might be. A strong degree of foresight is a prerequisite. Any design concept must at a very early stage in its generation take into account a great number of issues and variables, which include qualities of space(s),[https://www.academia.edu/2061334/Space_The_undefinable_space_of_architecture] the end-use and life-cycle of these proposed spaces, connections, relations and aspects between spaces including how they are put together as well as the impact of proposals on the immediate and wider locality. Selection of appropriate materials and technology must be considered, tested and reviewed at an early stage in the design to ensure there are no setbacks (such as higher-than-expected costs) which may occur later. The site and its environs, as well as the culture and history of the place will also influence the design. The design must also countenance increasing concerns with environmental sustainability. The architect may introduce (intentionally or not), to greater or lesser degrees, aspects of [[mathematics and architecture]], new or current [[architectural theory]], or references to [[architectural history]].\n\nA key part of design is that the architect often consults with engineers, surveyors and other specialists throughout the design, ensuring that aspects such as the structural supports and air conditioning elements are coordinated in the scheme as a whole. The control and planning of construction costs are also a part of these consultations. Coordination of the different aspects involves a high degree of specialized communication, including advanced computer technology such as BIM (Building Information Management), CAD and cloud-based technologies.\n\nAt all times in the design, the architect reports back to the client who may have reservations or recommendations, introducing a further variable into the design.\n\nArchitects deal with local and federal jurisdictions about regulations and [[building code]]s. The architect might need to comply with local [[Urban planning|planning]] and [[zoning]] laws, such as required setbacks, height limitations, parking requirements, transparency requirements (windows) and [[land use]]. Some established jurisdictions require adherence to design and [[historic preservation]] guidelines. Health and safety risks form a vital part of current design, and in many jurisdictions design reports and records are required, which include ongoing considerations such as materials and contaminants, waste management and recycling, traffic control and fire safety.\n\n===Means of design===\n\nPreviously, architects employed drawings[http://www.archdaily.com/639533/17-napkin-sketches-by-famous-architects] computer technology has now become the industry standard.[http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/architecture/2011/03/think_before_you_build.html] However, design may include the use of photos, collages, prints, lino-cuts and other media in design production. \nIncreasingly, computer software such as [[BIM]] is shaping how architects work. BIM technology allows for the creation of a virtual building that serves as an information database for the sharing of design and building information throughout the life-cycle of the building\'s design, construction and maintenance.[{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalbimstandard.org/faq.php#faq1|title=Frequently Asked Questions About the National BIM Standard-United States - National BIM Standard - United States|publisher=Nationalbimstandard.org|accessdate=17 October 2014}}]\n\n===Environmental role===\nAs current buildings are now known to be high emitters of carbon into the atmosphere, increasing controls are being placed on buildings and associated technology to reduce emissions, increase energy efficiency, and make use of renewable energy sources. Renewable energy sources may be developed within the proposed building or via local or national renewable energy providers. As a result, the architect is required to remain abreast of current regulations which are continually tightening. Some new developments exhibit extremely low energy use.[http://passipedia.org/basics/what_is_a_passive_house]\nHowever, the architect is also increasingly required to provide initiatives in a wider environmental sense, such as making provision for low-energy transport, natural daylighting instead of artificial lighting, natural ventilation instead of air-conditioning, pollution and waste management, use of recycled materials and employment of materials which can be easily recycled in the future.\n\n===Construction role===\nAs the design becomes more advanced and detailed, specifications and detail designs are made of all the elements and components of the building. Techniques in the production of building are continually advancing, which places a demand on the architect to ensure that he or she remains up to date with these advances.\n\nDepending on the client\'s needs and the jurisdiction\'s requirements, the spectrum of the architect\'s services during construction stages may be extensive (detailed document preparation and construction review) or less involved (such as allowing a contractor to exercise considerable [[design-build]] functions).\n\nArchitects typically put projects to [[Call for bids|tender]] on behalf of their clients, advise on the award of the project to a [[general contractor]], facilitate and then administer a contract of agreement, which is often between the client and the contractor. This contract is legally binding and covers a very wide range of aspects including the insurances and commitments of all stakeholders, the status of the design documents, provisions for the architect\'s access, and procedures for the control of the works as they proceed. Depending on the type of contract utilized, provisions for further sub-contract tenders may be required. The architect may require that some elements are covered by a warranty, which specifies the expected life and other aspects of the material, product or work.\n\nIn most jurisdictions, prior notification to the relevant local authority must be given before commencement on site, thus giving the local authority notice to carry out independent inspections. The architect will then review and inspect the progress of the work in coordination with the local authority.\n\nThe architect will typically review [[General contractor|contractor]] [[shop drawings]] and other [[Submittals (construction)|submittals]], prepare and issue site instructions, and provide Certificates for Payment to the contractor (see also [[Design-bid-build]]) which is based on the work done to date as well as any materials and other goods purchased or hired. In the [[United Kingdom]] and other countries, a [[quantity surveyor]] is often part of the team to provide cost consulting. With very large, complex projects, an independent [[Construction management|construction manager]] is sometimes hired to assist in design and to manage construction.\n\nIn many jurisdictions, mandatory certification or assurance of the completed work or part of works is required. This demand for certification entails a high degree of risk - therefore regular inspections of the work as it progresses on site is required to ensure that is in compliance with the design itself as well as with all relevant statutes and permissions.\n\n===Alternate practice and specializations===\nRecent decades have seen the rise of specializations within the profession. Many architects and architectural firms focus on certain project types (for example, health care, retail, public housing, event management), technological expertise or project delivery methods. Some architects specialize as [[building code]], [[building envelope]], [[Sustainable architecture|sustainable design]], [[technical writing]], [[historic preservation]](US) or conservation (UK), [[accessibility]] and other forms of specialist consultants.\n\nMany architects elect to move into [[real estate development|real estate (property) development]], corporate facilities planning, [[project management]], [[construction management]], [[interior design]] or other related fields.\n\n==Professional requirements==\n{{Main|Professional requirements for architects}}\n{{See also|Architectural engineering#Architect}}\n\nAlthough there are variations from place to place, most of the world\'s architects are required to register with the appropriate jurisdiction. To do so, architects are typically required to meet three common requirements: education, experience, and examination.\n\nEducational requirements generally consist of a [[university degree]] in architecture. The experience requirement for degree candidates is usually satisfied by a practicum or internship (usually two to three years, depending on jurisdiction). Finally, a Registration Examination or a series of exams is required prior to licensure.\n\nProfessionals engaged in the design and supervision of construction projects prior to the late 19th century were not necessarily trained in a separate architecture program in an academic setting. Instead, they often trained under established architects. Prior to modern times, there was no distinction between architects, [[engineer]]s and often [[artist]]s,{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} and the title used varied depending on geographical location. They often carried the title of [[master builder (occupation)|master builder]], or [[wikt:surveyor|surveyor]],{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} after serving a number of years as an apprentice (such as Sir [[Christopher Wren]]). The formal study of architecture in academic institutions played a pivotal role in the development of the profession as a whole, serving as a focal point for advances in architectural technology and theory.\n\n==Professional title distinctions==\nAccording to the [[American Institute of Architects]],[[http://www.aianova.org/pdf/BP_Arch_Positions.pdf \"http://www.aianova.org/pdf/BP_Arch_Positions.pdf\"]] titles and job descriptions within American architectural offices might be as follows:\n\n{| class=\"wikitable\"\n|-\n! Title\n!Definition\n|-\n| Senior Principal / Partner\n|Typically an owner or majority shareholder of the firm; may be the founder; titles may include managing director, president, chief executive officer, or managing principal/partner.\n|-\n| Mid-level Principal / Partner\n|Principal or partner; titles may include executive or senior vice president or director.\n|-\n| Junior Principal / Partner\n|Recently made a partner or principal of the firm; title may include vice president or associate director.\n|-\n|Department head / Senior Manager\n|Senior management architect or non-registered graduate; responsible for major department(s) or functions; reports to a principal or partner.\n|-\n|Project Manager\n|Licensed architect, or non-registered graduate with more than 10 years of experience; has overall project management responsibility for a variety of projects or project teams, including client contact, scheduling, and budgeting.\n|-\n|Senior Architect / Designer\n|Licensed architect, or non-registered graduate with more than 10 years of experience; has a design or technical focus and is responsible for significant project activities.\n|-\n|Architect / Designer III\n|Licensed architect or non-registered graduate with 8?10 years of experience; responsible for significant aspects of projects.\n|-\n|Architect / Designer II\n|Licensed architect or non-registered graduate with 6?8 years of experience, responsible for daily design or technical development of projects.\n|-\n|Architect / Designer I\n|Recently licensed architect or non-registered graduate with 3?5 years of experience; responsible for particular parts of a project within parameters set by others.\n|-\n|[[Intern Architect]]\n|Unlicensed architecture school graduate participating in a defined internship program; develops design or technical solutions under supervision of an architect. In the U.S., no state allows the use of the title \'\'architect\'\' by anyone who is not licensed to provide architectural services.\n|}\n\n==Fees==\n{{See also|Earnings for architects}}\nArchitects\' fee structures are typically based on a percentage of construction value, as a rate per unit area of the proposed construction, hourly rates or a fixed lump sum fee. Combinations of these structures are also common. Fixed fees are usually based on a project\'s allocated construction cost and can range between 4 and 12% of new construction cost, for commercial and institutional projects, depending on a project\'s size and complexity. Residential projects range from 12 to 20%. Renovation projects typically command higher percentages, as high as 15-20%. But the average income for this occupation is about $35.14 per hour or $73,090 per year.\n\nOverall billings for [[architectural firm]]s range widely, depending on location and economic climate. Billings have traditionally been dependent on the local economic conditions but, with rapid globalization, this is becoming less of a factor for larger international firms. Salaries also vary, depending on experience, position within the firm (staff architect, partner or shareholder, etc.) and the size and location of the firm.\n\n==Professional organizations==\n{{main|List of professional architecture organizations}}\nA number of national professional organizations exist to promote career and business development in architecture.\n\n==Prizes, awards, and titles==\n{{main|List of architecture prizes}}\nA wide variety of [[List of architecture prizes|prizes]] are awarded by national professional associations and other bodies, recognizing accomplished architects, their buildings, structures and professional careers.\n\nThe most lucrative award an architect can receive is the [[Pritzker Prize]], sometimes termed the \"[[Nobel Prize]] for [[architecture]].\" Other prestigious architectural awards are the [[Royal Gold Medal]], the [[AIA Gold Medal]], and the [[Praemium Imperiale]].\n\nArchitects in the UK who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education, or have in some other way advanced the profession, might until 1971 be elected Fellows of the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]] and can write [[FRIBA]] after their name if they feel so inclined. Those elected to chartered membership of the RIBA after 1971 may use the initials RIBA but cannot use the old ARIBA and FRIBA. An Honorary Fellow may use the initials Hon. FRIBA. and an International Fellow may use the initials Int. FRIBA. Architects in the US who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education, or have in some other way advanced the profession, are elected Fellows of the [[American Institute of Architects]] and can write [[FAIA]] after their name. Architects in Canada who have made outstanding contributions to the profession through contribution to research, scholarship, public service or professional standing to the good of architecture in Canada, or elsewhere, may be recognized as a Fellow of the [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]] and can write FRAIC after their name. In Hong Kong, those elected to chartered membership may use the initial HKIA, and those who have made special contribution, after nomination and election by The Hong Kong Institute of Architects (HKIA), maybe elected as fellow members of HKIA and may use FHKIA after their name.\n\nArchitects in the [[Philippines]] and [[Overseas Filipinos|Filipino communities overseas]] (whether they are Filipinos or not), especially those who also profess other jobs at the same time, are addressed and introduced as \'\'Architect\'\', rather than \'\'Sir/Madam\'\' in speech or \'\'Mr./Mrs./Ms.\'\' (\'\'G./Gng./Bb.\'\' in Filipino) before surnames. That word is used either in itself or before the given name or surname.\n\n==See also==\n{{Portal|Architecture}}\n{{Columns-list|2|\n*[[Architectural designer]]\n*[[Architectural drawing]]\n*[[Architectural engineering]]\n*[[Architectural technologist]]\n*[[Building officials]]\n*[[Chartered architect]]\n*[[Construction engineering]]\n*[[Civil engineer]]\n*[[Construction management|Construction manager]]\n*[[Expression (architecture)]]\n*[[Landscape architect]]\n*[[List of architects]]\n*[[Starchitect]]\n*[[State architect]]\n*[[Structural engineering]]\n*[[Urban design]]er\n*[[Urban planner]]\n*[[Women in architecture]]\n}}\n\n==References==\n{{Reflist|30em}}\n\n== External links ==\n{{Wikiquote|Architects}}\n{{Wikidata property |1=P84 |2=architect }}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n[[Category:Architects]]\n[[Category:Architecture occupations]]\n[[Category:Professional certification in architecture]]'
'Abbreviation' '{{Refimprove|date=May 2008}}\n: \'\'For the <abbr> HTML tag, see [[HTML element#abbr|HTML element <abbr>]]\'\'.\n[[File:Schriftprobe Latein 15 Jh.jpg|thumb|Example of [[Latin]] text with abbreviations]]\n\nAn \'\'\'abbreviation\'\'\' (from [[Latin]] \'\'brevis\'\', meaning \'\'short\'\') is a shortened form of a word or phrase. It consists of a group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word \'\'abbreviation\'\' can itself be represented by the abbreviation \'\'abbr.\'\', \'\'abbrv.\'\' or \'\'abbrev.\'\'\n\nIn strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with [[Contraction (grammar)|contractions]], [[acronym]]s, or initialisms, with which they share some [[semantic]] and [[phonetic]] functions, though all four are connoted by the term \"abbreviation\" in loose parlance.[{{cite book|title=New Hart\'s Rules: The handbook of style for writers and editors|publisher=Oxford University Press, 2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3uwGtj8i_vkC&dq=New+Hart%27s+Rules&q=acronyms+contractions+10.1#v=snippet&q=acronyms%20contractions%2010.1&f=false|isbn=0-19-861041-6}}]{{rp|p167}}An abbreviation is a shortening by any method; a contraction is a reduction of size by the drawing together of the parts. A contraction of a word is made by omitting certain letters or [[syllable]]s and bringing together the first and last letters or elements; an abbreviation may be made by omitting certain portions from the interior or by cutting off a part. A contraction is an abbreviation, but an abbreviation is not necessarily a contraction. Acronyms and initialisms are regarded as subsets of abbreviations (e.g. by the [[Council of Science Editors]]). They are abbreviations that consist of the initial letters or parts of words.\n\n== History ==\n{{See also|Scribal abbreviation}}\n\nAbbreviations have a long history, used so that spelling out a whole word could be avoided. This might be done to save time and space, and also to provide secrecy. Shortened words were used and initial letters were commonly used to represent words in specific applications. In classical [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], the reduction of words to single letters was common.[[https://books.google.com/books?id=HA9kAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA5&dq=abbreviations+history&hl=en&sa=X&ei=D2NaVIitA6vbsASp94DgAg&ved=0CDoQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=abbreviations%20history&f=false \'\'The British Cyclopaedia of the Arts, Sciences, History, Geography, Literature, Natural History, and Biography\'\', Wm. S. Orr and Company, 1838, p.5.]] In Roman inscriptions, \"Words were commonly abbreviated by using the initial letter or letters of words, and most inscriptions have at least one abbreviation.\" However, \"some could have more than one meaning, depending on their context. (For example, \'\'A\'\' can be an abbreviation for many words, such as \'\'ager\'\', \'\'amicus\'\', \'\'annus\'\', \'\'as\'\', \'\'Aulus\'\', \'\'Aurelius\'\', \'\'aurum\'\' and \'\'avus\'\'.)\"[Adkins, L., [https://books.google.com/books?id=zGY1Sqjwf8kC&dq=abbreviations++fashionable&q=abbreviated+%22the+initial%22#v=snippet&q=abbreviated%20%22the%20initial%22&f=false \'\'Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome\'\'], Infobase Publishing, 2004, p. 261.]\n\nAbbreviations in English were frequently used from its earliest days. Manuscripts of copies of the [[old English]] poem [[Beowulf]] used many abbreviations, for example \'\'7\'\' or \'\'&\'\' for \'\'and\'\', and \'\'y\'\' for \'\'since\'\', so that \"not much space is wasted\".[[https://books.google.com/books?id=68EjAwAAQBAJ&dq=abbreviations+history&q=abbreviations+beowulf#v=snippet&q=abbreviations%20beowulf&f=false Gelderen, E. v, , \'\'A History of the English Language: Revised edition\'\', John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2014, Ch. 4 1.]] The standardisation of [[English language|English]] in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviations.[[http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j7/shortcuts.php Spelling Society : Shortcuts 1483?1660] Doesn\'t work.]{{citation needed|date=November 2014}} At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, sequences like ?er? were replaced with {{unicode|???}}, as in {{unicode|?mast??}} for \'\'master\'\' and {{unicode|?exac?bate?}} for \'\'exacerbate\'\'. While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce the copy time. An example from the Oxford University Register, 1503:{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}\n\n{{quote|{{unicode|Mast? subwarden? y ?m?de me to you. And wher? y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differr? thelection? ov? to qu?dena? tinitatis y have be thoug?t me syn? that itt woll be then? a bowte mydsom?.}}}}\n\nThe [[Early Modern English]] period, between the 15th and 17th centuries, had abbreviations like \'\'ye\'\' for \'\'?e\'\', used for the word \'\'the\'\': \"hence, by later misunderstanding, Ye Olde Tea Shoppe.\"[Lass, R., \'\'The Cambridge History of the English Language\'\', Cambridge University Press, 2006, Vol. 2, p. 36.]\n\nDuring the growth of [[philology|philological]] linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very fashionable. The use of abbreviation for the names of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] and his friend [[C. S. Lewis]], and other members of the [[Oxford]] literary group known as the [[Inklings]], are sometimes cited as symptomatic of this.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}} Likewise, a century earlier in [[Boston]], a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term [[Okay|OK]] generally credited as a remnant of its influence.[{{cite web |url=http://www.illinoisprairie.info/chocokeh.htm |title=The Choctaw Expression \'Okeh\' and the Americanism \'Okay\' |publisher=Jim Fay |date=2007-09-13 |accessdate=2008-05-12}}][{{cite web |url=http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_250.html |title=What does \"OK\" stand for? |publisher=[[The Straight Dope]] |accessdate=2008-05-12| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080512085453/http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_250.html| archivedate= 12 May 2008 | deadurl= no}}]\n\nAfter [[World War II]], the British greatly reduced the use of the [[full stop]] and other punctuation points after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept such use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organisation of secret agents called the \"[[Special Operations, Executive]]\"?\"S.O.,E\"?which is not found in histories written after about 1960.\n\nBut before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In [[French language|French]], the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is \'\'not\'\' the last letter of its antecedent: \"M.\" is the abbreviation for \"monsieur\" while \"Mme\" is that for \"madame\". Like many other cross-[[English Channel|channel]] linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}\n\nOver the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to use periods in two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not [[personal computer]] (PC) or [[television]] (TV). Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations.\n\nMinimization of punctuation in typewritten material became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbon-film [[IBM Selectric typewriter#Ribbons|ribbons]] since a period or comma consumed the same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.\n\nWidespread use of electronic communication through [[Mobile phone#Mobile phones in society|mobile phones]] and [[Internet#Social impact|the Internet]] during the 1990s allowed for a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation. This was due largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as [[Instant messaging|instant-]] and [[text messaging]]. [[Short Message Service|SMS]], for instance, supports message lengths of 160 characters at most (using the [[GSM 03.38]] character set). This brevity gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called [[SMS language|Textese]], with which 10% or more of the words in a typical SMS message are abbreviated.[Crystal, David. [[Txtng: the Gr8 Db8]]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-954490-5] More recently [[Twitter]], a popular [[social networking service]], began driving abbreviation use with 140 character message limits.\n\n== Style conventions in English ==\n\nIn [[modern English]] there are several conventions for abbreviations, and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be \'\'consistent\'\', and to make this easier, publishers express their preferences in a [[style guide]]. Questions which arise include those in the following subsections.\n\n=== Lowercase letters ===\n\nIf the original word was capitalized then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for \'\'Leviticus\'\'. When a word is abbreviated to more than a single letter and was originally spelled with lower case letters then there is no need for capitalization. However, when abbreviating a phrase where only the first letter of each word is taken, then all letters should be capitalized, as in YTD for \'\'year-to-date\'\', PCB for \'\'printed circuit board\'\' and FYI for \'\'for your information\'\'. However, see the following section regarding abbreviations that have become common vocabulary: these are no longer written with capital letters.\n\n=== Periods (full stops) and spaces ===\n\nA period (full stop) is often used to signify an abbreviation, but opinion is divided as to when and if this should happen.\n\nAccording to [[Hart\'s Rules]], the traditional rule is that abbreviations (in the narrow sense that includes only words with the ending, and not the middle, dropped) terminate with a full stop, whereas contractions (in the sense of words missing a middle part) do not, but there are exceptions.[{{rp|p167?170}} [[Fowler\'s Modern English Usage]] says full stops are used to mark both abbreviations and contractions, but recommends against this practice: advising them only for abbreviations and lower-case initialisms and not for upper-case initialisms and contractions.][{{cite book|title=Pocket Fowler\'s Modern English Usage|edition=2nd|editor-first=Robert|editor-last=Allen|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2008|isbn=9780191727078|contribution=Full stop}}]\n\n{| class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\"\n|-\n!Example\n!Category\n!Short form\n!Source\n|-\n|[[Doctor (title)|Doctor]]\n|Contraction\n|Dr\n|D??r\n|-\n|[[Professor]]\n|Abbreviation\n|Prof.\n|Prof...\n|-\n|The [[Reverend]]\n|Abbreviation\n|Rev.\n|Rev...\n|-\n|The [[Reverend]]\n|Contraction\n|Revd\n|Rev??d\n|-\n|[[The Right Honourable]]\n|Contraction and Abbreviation\n|Rt Hon.\n|R??t Hon...\n|}\n\nIn [[American English]], the period is usually included. In some cases periods are optional, as in either \'\'US\'\' or \'\'U.S.\'\' for \'\'United States\'\', \'\'EU\'\' or \'\'E.U.\'\' for \'\'European Union\'\', and \'\'UN\'\' or \'\'U.N.\'\' for \'\'United Nations\'\'. There are some house styles, however?American ones included?that remove the periods from almost all abbreviations. For example:\n* The U.S. [[Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices]] advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name. (For example, \'\'\"Northwest Blvd\"\'\', \'\'\"W. Jefferson\"\'\', and \'\'\"PED XING\"\'\' all follow this recommendation.) \n* [[AMA Manual of Style|AMA style]], used in many [[medical journal]]s, uses no periods in abbreviations or acronyms, with almost no exceptions. Thus [[List of Latin phrases (E)#exempli gratia|eg]], [[List of Latin phrases (I)#id est|ie]], [[wikt:versus|vs]], [[List of Latin phrases (E)#et alii|et al]], [[Doctor (title)|Dr]], [[Mr.|Mr]], [[magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]], [[intensive care unit|ICU]], and hundreds of others contain no periods. The only exceptions are \"[[Numero sign|No.]]\" (to avoid the appearance of \"[[yes and no|No]]\"); initials within persons\' names (such as \"George R. Smith\"); and \"St.\" within persons\' names when the person prefers it (such as \"Emily R. St. Clair\") (but not in city names such as \'\'St Louis\'\' or \'\'St Paul\'\'). (AMA style also forgoes italic on terms long since naturalized into English from [[Latin]], [[New Latin]], other languages, or [[international scientific vocabulary|ISV]]; thus, no italic for [[List of Latin phrases (E)#exempli gratia|eg]], [[List of Latin phrases (I)#id est|ie]], [[wikt:versus|vs]], [[List of Latin phrases (E)#et alii|et al]], [[in vivo]], [[in vitro]], or [[in situ]].)\n\nAcronyms that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer written with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are [[sonar]], [[radar]], [[lidar]], [[laser]], [[List of military slang terms#SNAFU|snafu]], and [[Scuba set|scuba]].\n\nToday, spaces are generally not used between single-letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters \"U. S.\"\n\nWhen an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence, only one period is used: The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C.\n\n=== Plural forms ===\n\nThere is a question about how to pluralize abbreviations, particularly acronyms. Often a writer will add an \'s\' following an apostrophe, as in \"PC\'s\". However, this style is not preferred by many style guides. For instance, Kate Turabian, writing about style in academic writings,[Turabian, K., \'\'A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations\'\', 7th Edition, subsection 20.1.2] allows for an apostrophe to form plural acronyms \"only when an abbreviation contains internal periods or both capital and lowercase letters\". Turabian would therefore prefer \"DVDs\" and \"URLs\" and \"Ph.D.\'s\", while the [[Modern Language Association]][Modern Language Association (MLA) Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th Edition 2009, subsection 3.2.7.g] explicitly says, \"do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation\". Also, the [[American Psychological Association]] specifically says,[Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), 5th Edition 2001, subsection 3.28][Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), 6th Edition 2010, subsection 4.29] \"without an apostrophe\".\n\nHowever, the 1999 style guide for the [[New York Times]] states that the addition of an apostrophe is necessary when pluralizing all abbreviations, preferring \"PC\'s, TV\'s and VCR\'s\".[Siegal, AM., Connolly, WG., [https://books.google.com/books?ei=-y5aVHCTyLAEl5GB0AE&id=RT5w0s7_op8C&dq=new+york+times+style&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=plurals+abbreviations \'\'The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage\'\'], Three Rivers Press, 1999, p. 24.]\n\nFollowing those who would generally omit the apostrophe, to form the plural of [[Runs Batted In]], simply add an s to the end of RBI.[{{cite book|last=Garner|first=Bryan|title=Garner\'s Modern American Usage|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford; New York|isbn=978-0-19-538275-4|page=638}}]\n\n*RBIs\n\nFor all other rules, see below:\n\nTo form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter used as a noun, simply add a lowercase \'\'s\'\' to the end. Apostrophes following decades and single letters are also common.\n* A group of MPs\n* The roaring 20s\n* Mind your Ps and Qs\n\nTo indicate the plural of the abbreviation or symbol of a unit of measure, the same form is used as in the singular.\n* 1 lb or 20 lb\n* 1 ft or 16 ft\n* 1 min or 45 min\n\nWhen an abbreviation contains more than one full point, \'\'Hart\'s Rules\'\' recommends putting the \'\'s\'\' after the final one.\n* Ph.D.s\n* M.Phil.s\n* the d.t.s\nHowever, subject to any house style or consistency requirement, the same plurals may be rendered less formally as:\n* PhDs\n* MPhils\n* the DTs. (This is the recommended form in the \'\'New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors\'\'.)\n\nAccording to \'\'Hart\'s Rules\'\', an apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects.\n* The x\'s of the equation\n* Dot the i\'s and cross the t\'s\nHowever, the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes:\n* The \'\'x\'\'s of the equation\n* Dot the \'i\'s and cross the \'t\'s\n\nIn Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well.\n\n{| class=\"wikitable\" border=\"1\"\n|-\n!Singular abbreviation\n!Singular Word\n!Plural abbreviation\n!Plural Word\n!Discipline\n|-\n|d.\n| didot\n|dd.\n| didots\n| typography\n|-\n|f.\n| following line or page\n|ff.\n| following lines or pages\n|notes\n|-\n|F.\n| folio\n|Ff.\n| folios\n|literature\n|-\n|h.\n| hand\n|hh.\n| hands\n| horse height\n|-\n|l.\n| line\n|ll.\n| lines\n|notes\n|-\n|MS\n| manuscript\n|MSS\n| manuscripts\n|notes\n|-\n|op.\n| opus\n|opp.\n| opera\n|notes\n|-\n|p.\n|page\n|pp.\n| pages\n|notes\n|-\n|Q.\n| quarto\n|Qq.\n| quartos\n|literature\n|-\n|s. (or ?)\n|section\n|ss. (or ??)\n|sections\n|notes\n|-\n|v.\n|volume\n|vv.\n|volumes\n|notes\n|}\n\n=== Conventions followed by publications and newspapers ===\n\n==== United States ====\n\nPublications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of \'\'[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]\'\' and the [[Associated Press]].{{Verify source|date=May 2008}} The [[U.S. Government]] follows a style guide published by the [[U.S. Government Printing Office]]. The [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] sets the style for abbreviations of units.\n\n==== United Kingdom ====\n\nMany British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:\n* For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the [[BBC]] and \'\'[[The Guardian]]\'\', have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include:\n** Social titles, like Ms or Mr (though these would usually not have had full stops?see above) Capt, Prof, \'\'etc.;\'\'\n** Two-letter abbreviations for countries (\'\'\"US\"\'\', not \'\'\"U.S.\"\'\');\n** Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms{{clarify|date=November 2015}});\n** Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters (\'\'\"PR\"\'\', instead of \'\'\"p.r.\"\'\', or \'\'\"pr\"\'\')\n** Names (\'\'\"FW de Klerk\"\'\', \'\'\"GB Whiteley\"\'\', \'\'\"Park JS\"\'\'). A notable exception is \'\'[[The Economist]]\'\' which writes \'\'\"Mr F. W. de Klerk\"\'\'.\n** Scientific units (see Measurement below).\n* Acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalized. For instance, the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] can be abbreviated as \'\'\"Nato\"\'\' or \'\'\"NATO\"\'\', and [[Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome]] as \'\'\"Sars\"\'\' or \'\'\"SARS\"\'\' (compare with \'\'\"[[laser]]\"\'\' which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalised at all).\n* Initialisms are always written in capitals; for example the \'\'\"British Broadcasting Corporation\"\'\' is abbreviated to \'\'\"BBC\"\'\', never \'\'\"Bbc\"\'\'. An initialism is similar to acronym but is not pronounced as a word.\n* When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10?C). (This is contrary to the SI standard; see below.)\n\n==== Miscellaneous and general rules ====\n\n* A doubled letter appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] the double \"l\" is a separate sound: \"Ll. George\" for (British prime minister) [[David Lloyd George]].\n* Some titles, such as \"Reverend\" and \"Honourable\", are spelt out when preceded by \"the\", rather than as \"Rev.\" or \"Hon.\" respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.\n* A repeatedly used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage.[[[Gary Blake]] and [[Robert W. Bly]], \'\'The Elements of Technical Writing\'\', pg. 53. [[New York City|New York]]: [[Macmillan Publishers (United States)|Macmillan Publishers]], 1993. ISBN 0020130856] Abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided.\n\n== Measurement shorthand?symbol or abbreviation ==\n[[Image:PRC Expressway RoadSign Distances.jpg|thumb|200px|Road sign in China?\"km\" is a symbol, not an abbreviation, as it is not a contraction of a Chinese word]]\n\nWriters often use shorthand to denote units of measure. Such shorthand can be an abbreviation, such as \"in\" for \"[[inch]]\" or can be a symbol such as \"km\" for \"[[kilometre]]\".\n\nThe shorthand \"in\" applies to English only?in [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] for example, the shorthand \"dm\" is used for the equivalent Afrikaans word \"duim\".[{{cite book\n| title = Woordeboek/Dictionary; Afrikaans-English / Engels-Afrikaans\n| editor = Abel Coetzee\n| publisher = Collins\n| year = 1969\n| oclc = 29232187\n| location = Glasgow and Johannesburg}}] Since both \"in\" and \"dm\" are contractions of the same word, but in different languages, they are abbreviations. A symbol on the other hand, defined as \"Mark or character taken as the conventional sign of some object or idea or process\"[{{cite book\n|title = Oxford Concise Dictionary\n|publisher = Oxford University Press\n|year = 1964}}] applies the appropriate shorthand by \'\'substitution\'\' rather than by \'\'contraction\'\'. Since the shorthand for kilometre (\'\'[[:pt:Quil?metro|quil?metro]]\'\' in Portuguese or \'\'[[:el:??????????|??????????]]\'\' in Greek) is \"km\" in both languages and the letter \"k\" does not appear in the expansion of either translation, \"km\" is a symbol as it is a substitution rather than a contraction. It is a [[logogram]] rather than an abbreviation.\n\nIn the [[International System of Units]] (SI) manual[{{SIbrochure8th}}] the word \"symbol\" is used consistently to define the shorthand used to represent the various SI units of measure. The manual also [[International System of Units|defines the way in which units should be written]], the principal rules being:\n*The conventions for upper and lower case letters must be observed?for example 1 MW (megawatts) is equal to 1,000,000,000 mW (milliwatts).\n*No periods should be inserted between letters?for example \"m.s\" (which is an approximation of \"m?s\", which correctly uses [[middle dot]]) is the symbol for \"metres multiplied by seconds\", but \"ms\" is the symbol for milliseconds.\n*No periods should follow the symbol unless the syntax of the sentence demands otherwise (for example a full stop at the end of a sentence).\n*The singular and plural versions of the symbol are identical?not all languages use the letter \"s\" to denote a plural.\n\n== Syllabic abbreviation ==\n\nA \'\'\'syllabic abbreviation\'\'\' is an abbreviation formed from (usually) initial syllables of several words, such as \'\'[[Interpol]]\'\' = \'\'\'\'\'Inter\'\'\'national\'\' + \'\'\'\'\'pol\'\'\'ice\'\'. It is a variant of the acronym. Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using [[lower case]], sometimes starting with a [[capital letter]], and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter. Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from [[portmanteau]]s, which combine two words without necessarily taking whole syllables from each.\n\n=== Usage ===\n\n==== Different languages ====\n\nSyllabic abbreviations are not widely used in English or French. The [[United States Navy]], however, often uses syllabic abbreviations, as described below, and some [[UK]] government ministries such as [[Ofcom]] (\'\'\'\'\'Of\'\'\'fice of \'\'\'Com\'\'\'munications\'\') and [[Oftel]] (\'\'\'\'\'Of\'\'\'fice of \'\'\'Tel\'\'\'ecommunications\'\') does use this style.\n\nOn the other hand, they prevailed in Germany under the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] and in the Soviet Union for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organisations. For example, \'\'[[Gestapo]]\'\' stands for \'\'\'\'\'Ge\'\'\'heime \'\'\'Sta\'\'\'ats-\'\'\'Po\'\'\'lizei\'\', or \"secret state police\". Similarly, Leninist organisations such as the \'\'[[Comintern]]\'\' (\'\'Communist International\'\') and \'\'[[Komsomol]]\'\' (\'\'\'\'\'Kom\'\'\'munisticheskii \'\'\'So\'\'\'yuz \'\'\'Mol\'\'\'odyozhi\'\', or \"Communist youth union\") used Russian language syllabic abbreviations. This has caused syllabic abbreviations to have negative connotations{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} (as in Orwell\'s [[Newspeak]]), notwithstanding that such abbreviations were used in Germany even before the Nazis came to power, e.g., \'\'[[:de:Schupo|Schupo]]\'\' for \'\'Schutzpolizei\'\'.\n\nSyllabic abbreviations were also typical for the [[German language]] used in the [[German Democratic Republic]], e.g. \'\'[[Stasi]]\'\' for \'\'Staatssicherheit\'\' (\"state security\", the secret police) or \'\'Vopo\'\' for \'\'Volkspolizist\'\' (\"people\'s policeman\"). Other uses are in company or product names such as [[Aldi]], [[Agfa-Gevaert|Agfa]], [[Hanuta]] or [[Haribo]].\n\nEast Asian languages whose writing systems use [[Chinese characters]] form abbreviations similarly by using key Chinese characters from a term or phrase. For example, in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] the term for the [[United Nations]], \'\'kokusai reng?\'\' (????) is often abbreviated to \'\'kokuren\'\' (??). (Such abbreviations are called [[:ja:??|ryakugo]] (??) in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]; see also [[Japanese abbreviated and contracted words]]). The syllabic abbreviation is frequently used for universities: for instance, \'\'B?id?\'\' (??) for \'\'B?ij?ng D?xu?\'\' (????, [[Peking University]]) and \'\'T?dai\'\' (??) for \'\'T?ky? daigaku\'\' (????, [[University of Tokyo]]). The English phrase \"[[:wikt:gung ho|Gung ho]]\" originated as a Chinese abbreviation.\n\n==== Organizations ====\n{{See also|Neologism}}\n\nPartially syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US Navy, as it increases readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms. Hence \'\'[[DESRON]] 6\'\' is used (in the full capital form) to mean \"Destroyer Squadron 6\", while \'\'[[COMNAVAIRLANT]]\'\' would be \"Commander, Naval Air Force (in the) Atlantic.\"\n\n== See also ==\n\n* [[Clipping (morphology)]]\n* [[List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions]]\n* [[List of abbreviations in photography]]\n* [[List of acronyms]]\n* [[List of classical abbreviations]]\n* [[List of medieval abbreviations]]\n* [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Abbreviations in Webster|The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster\'s dictionary]]\n* [[Abbreviation (music)]]\n* [[Numeronym]]\n\n== References ==\n\n{{Reflist|30em}}\n\n== External links ==\n{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbreviation}}\n\n*{{dmoz|/Reference/Dictionaries/Acronyms/|Acronyms}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n[[Category:Abbreviations| ]]'
'Automorphism' '{{maths rating\n|field=foundations\n|importance=mid\n|class=start\n|vital=\n|historical=\n}}\n\n(I am not satisfied with that, it is too much jargon, there should be an\n\n==Untitled==\nexample, it does not convey the power of the concept and is just a\ndefinition) -- Olivier.\n----\nNot only that, but what the heck is it?!?! Seriously, I think good [http://www.wikipedia.org encyclopedia]\narticles should assume that the reader may not know the context of the article. \nA single introductory sentence describing the context can make all the difference\nin the world. -- [[User:Alan Millar|Alan Millar]]\n----\n\n== [[User:LinkBot/suggestions/Automorphism|Link suggestions]] ==\n\nAn [[User:LinkBot|automated Wikipedia link suggester]] has some possible wiki link suggestions for the [[Automorphism]] article, and they have been placed on [[User:LinkBot/suggestions/Automorphism|this page]] for your convenience.
\'\'Tip:\'\' Some people find it helpful if these suggestions are shown on this talk page, rather than on another page. To do this, just add {{User:LinkBot/suggestions/Automorphism}} to this page. — [[User:LinkBot|LinkBot]] 01:01, 18 Dec 2004 (UTC)\n\n: I added the links that made sense. [[User:Edward|Edward]] 07:52, 22 Dec 2004 (UTC)\n\n==Centerless?==\n\nIt talks of \"if G is centerless\" in the examples, but isn\'t G a group, and so contains the identity, which is commutative by definition, and hence all centers contain the identity? so doesn\'t this put the talk of a centerless group as impossible? -- [[User:Moxmalin|Moxmalin]]\n\n:By definition, a group is centerless if its center consists of only the identity. See [[center of a group]]. -- [[User:Fropuff|Fropuff]] 00:16, 9 February 2007 (UTC)\n\n== Automorphisms of \'\'\'R\'\'\' ==\n\nCurrently the article states that \'\'\'R\'\'\' has no non-trivial order-preserving field-automorphisms, which is true, but potentially misleading since in fact \'\'\'R\'\'\' has no non-trivial field-automorphisms at all (since the order can be recovered from the field operations, as the positive elements are precisely the nonzero squares). I\'m changing it. [[User talk:Algebraist|Algebraist]] 17:15, 22 March 2008 (UTC)'
'Aphrodite' '{{About|the Greek goddess}}\n{{Redirect|Cypris}}\n{{Redirect|Pandemos|the butterfly|Pandemos (butterfly)}}\n{{pp-semi-indef}}\n{{Infobox deity\n| type = Greek\n| name = Aphrodite\n| image = NAMA Aphrodite Syracuse.jpg\n| image_size = \n| alt = \n| caption = \'\'Aphrodite Pudica\'\' (Roman copy of 2nd century AD), [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens]]\n| god_of = Goddess of love, beauty and sexuality\n| abode = [[Mount Olympus]]\n| symbol = [[Dolphin]], [[Rose]], [[Scallop|Scallop Shell]], [[Myrtle (plant)|Myrtle]], [[Dove]], [[Sparrow]], [[Girdle]], [[Mirror]], and [[Swan]]\n| consort = [[Hephaestus]], [[Ares]], [[Poseidon]], [[Hermes]], [[Dionysus]], [[Adonis]], and [[Anchises]]\n| parents = [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]][Hesiod, \'\'Theogony\'\', 188] or [[Zeus]] and [[Dione (Titaness/Oceanid)|Dione]][Homer, \'\'Iliad\'\' 5.370.]\n| siblings = [[Ares]], [[Athena]], [[Apollo]], [[Artemis]], [[Dionysus]], [[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]], [[Hermes]], [[Heracles]], [[Helen of Troy]], [[Hephaestus]], [[Perseus]], [[Minos]], the [[Muse]]s, the [[Graces]], [[Meliae|The Tree Nymphs]], [[Erinyes|The Furies]] and [[Gigantes|The Gigantes]]\n| children = [[Eros]],[Eros is usually mentioned as the son of Aphrodite but in other versions he is born out of Chaos] [[Phobos (mythology)|Phobos]], [[Deimos (mythology)|Deimos]], [[Harmonia (mythology)|Harmonia]], [[Pothos (mythology)|Pothos]], [[Anteros]], [[Himeros]], [[Hermaphroditos]], [[Rhode (mythology)|Rhode]], [[Eryx]], [[Peitho]], [[Eunomia (goddess)|Eunomia]], [[Charites|The Graces]], [[Priapus]], [[Aeneas]] and [[Tyche]] (possibly)\n| mount = \n| Roman_equivalent = [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]\n}}\n\n{{Ancient Greek religion}}\n\n{{Neopaganism-sidebar}}\n\n\'\'\'Aphrodite\'\'\' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Aphrodite.ogg|?|f|r|?|?|d|a?|t|i}} {{respell|af-r?|DY|tee}}; [[Greek language|Greek]]: {{lang|el|????????}}) is the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[goddess]] of [[love]], [[beauty]], pleasure, and procreation. Her [[interpretatio romana|Roman equivalent]] is the goddess {{lang|la|[[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]}}.[\'\'Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia\'\', [[The Book People]], Haydock, 1995, p. 215.] She is identified with the planet [[Venus]].\n\nAs with many ancient Greek deities, there is more than one story about her origins. According to [[Hesiod]]\'s \'\'[[Theogony]]\'\', she was born when [[Cronus]] cut off [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]]\'s genitals and threw them into the sea, and she arose from the sea foam (\'\'aphros\'\'). \nAccording to [[Homer]]\'s \'\'[[Iliad]]\'\', she is the daughter of [[Zeus]] and [[Dione (Titaness/Oceanid)|Dione]]. According to [[Plato]] (\'\'Symposium\'\', 180e), these two origins were of entirely separate entities: [[Aphrodite Urania|Aphrodite Ourania]] and [[Aphrodite Pandemos]].\n\nBecause of her beauty, other gods feared that their rivalry over her would interrupt the peace among them and lead to war, so [[Zeus]] married her to [[Hephaestus]], who, because of his ugliness and deformity, was not seen as a threat. Aphrodite had many lovers?both gods, such as [[Ares]], and men, such as [[Anchises]]. She played a role in the [[Eros and Psyche]] legend, and later was both [[Adonis]]\'s lover and his surrogate mother. Many lesser beings were said to be children of Aphrodite.\n\nAphrodite is also known as \'\'\'Cytherea\'\'\' (\'\'Lady of Cythera\'\') and \'\'\'Cypris\'\'\' (\'\'Lady of Cyprus\'\') after the two cult sites, [[Kythira|Cythera]] and [[Cyprus]], which claimed to be her place of birth. [[Myrtle (plant)|Myrtle]], [[dove]]s, [[sparrow]]s, [[horse]]s, and [[swan]]s were said to be sacred to her. The ancient Greeks identified her with the Ancient Egyptian goddess [[Hathor]].[Reginald Eldred Witt, \'\'Isis in the ancient world\'\' (Johns Hopkins University Press) 1997:125.\nISBN 0-8018-5642-6]\n\nAphrodite had many other names, such as Acidalia, Cytherea, and Cerigo, each used by a different local cult of the goddess in Greece. The Greeks recognized all of these names as referring to the single goddess Aphrodite, despite the slight differences in what these local cults believed the goddess demanded of them. The Attic philosophers of the 4th century, however, drew a distinction between a celestial Aphrodite (Aphrodite Urania) of transcendent principles, and a separate, \"common\" Aphrodite who was the goddess of the people (Aphrodite Pandemos).\n\n==Etymology==\n\'\'Aphrodite\'\', perhaps altered after \'\'aphr?s\'\' ({{lang|el|?????}}) \"foam\", stems from the more archaic [[Cretan]] \'\'Aphord?ta\'\' and Cypriot \'\'Aphorod?ta\'\', and was probably ultimately borrowed from Cypriot [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]].[[[Robert Beekes]], \'\'Etymological Dictionary of Greek\'\', Vol. 1 (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 179.] [[Herodotus]] and [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] recorded that Aphrodite\'s oldest non-Greek temple lay in the Syrian city of [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]] where she was known as \'\'Ourania\'\', an obvious reference to [[Astarte]]. This suggests that Aphrodite\'s cult located at [[Cythera (island)|Cythera]]-[[Cyprus]] came from the Phoenicians. The fact that one of Aphrodite\'s chief centers of worship remained on the southwestern Cypriot coast settled by Phoenicians, where the goddess had long been worshiped as \'\'[[Astarte|Ashtart]]\'\' (??trt), points to the transmission of Aphrodite\'s original cult from Phoenicia to Cyprus then to mainland Greece.[Pausanias 1.14.6-7, W.S. Jones (trans.), Pausianas: Descriptions of Greece (London, 1931).] So far, however, attempts to derive the name from Aphrodite\'s Semitic precursor have been inconclusive.\n\nA number of [[false etymology|false etymologies]] have been proposed through the ages. [[Hesiod]] derives \'\'Aphrodite\'\' from \'\'aphr?s\'\' \"foam,\" interpreting the name as \"risen from the foam\".[Hesiod, \'\'[[Theogony]]\'\', 176ff.][Kretschmer \'\'KZ\'\' 33 (1895): 267.] Janda (2010), accepting this as genuine, claims the foam birth myth as an [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] mytheme. Janda intereprets the name as a compound \'\'aphr?s\'\' \"foam\" and \'\'d?ato\'\' \"[she] seems, shines\", meaning \"she who shines from the foam [ocean]\", supposedly a byname of [[Eos]], the [[Hausos|dawn goddess]].[Janda, Michael, \'\'Die Musik nach dem Chaos\'\', Innsbruck 2010, p. 65] Likewise, Mallory and Adams (1997)[Mallory, J.P., and Adams, D.Q. \'\'[[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture]]\'\'. London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishing, 1997.] propose an Indo-European compound \'\'{{PIE|*ab?or-}}\'\' \"very\" and \'\'{{PIE|*d?ei-}}\'\' \"to shine\", also referring to Eos. However, etymologies based on comparison with Eos are unlikely since Aphrodite\'s attributes are entirely different from those of Eos (or the [[Vedic deity]] [[Ushas]]).[Charles Penglase, \'\'Greek Myths and Mesopotamia: Parallels and Influence in the Homeric Hymns and Hesiod\'\' (Routledge, 1997), 164; citing Deborah Boedeker, \'\'Aphrodite\'s Entry into Greek Epic\'\' (Leiden: Brill, 1974), 15-6.] Finally, the medieval \'\'[[Etymologicum Magnum]]\'\' offers a highly contrived etymology, deriving \'\'Aphrodite\'\' from the compound \'\'habrod?aitos\'\' ({{lang|grc|???????????}}), \"she who lives delicately\", from \'\'habr?s\'\' and \'\'d?aita\'\'. The alteration from \'\'b\'\' to \'\'ph\'\' is explained as a \"familiar\" characteristic of Greek \"obvious from the [[Ancient Macedonian language|Macedonians]]\",[Etymologicum Magnum, ????????] despite the fact that the name cannot be of Macedonian origin.\n\nA number of improbable non-Greek etymologies have been suggested in scholarship. One Semitic etymology compares Aphrodite to the Assyrian \'\'bar?r?tu\'\', the name of a female demon that appears in Middle Babylonian and Late Babylonian texts.[see Chicago Assyrian Dictionary vol. 2 p. 111] Hammarstr?m (1921)[M. Hammarstr?m, \'\'Glotta: Zeitschrift f?r griechische und lateinische Sprache\'\' 11 (1921): 215f.] looks to [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], comparing \'\'(e)pr?ni\'\' \"lord\", an Etruscan honorific loaned into Greek as [[Prytaneis|????????]]. This would make the theonym in origin an honorific, \"the lady\". [[Hjalmar Frisk]] and Robert Beekes (2010) rejects this etymology as implausible, especially since Aphrodite actually appears in Etruscan in the borrowed form \'\'Apru\'\' (from Greek \'\'Aphr?\'\', clipped form of \'\'Aphrodite\'\').\n\n==Mythology==\n\n=== Birth ===\n[[File:Sandro Botticelli - La nascita di Venere - Google Art Project - edited.jpg|thumb|410px|\'\'[[The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)|The Birth of Venus]]\'\' by [[Sandro Botticelli]], \'\'circa\'\' 1485.]]\nAphrodite is usually said to have been born near her chief center of worship, [[Paphos]], on the island of [[Cyprus]], which is why she is sometimes called \"Cyprian\", especially in the poetic works of [[Sappho]]. However, other versions of her myth have her born near the island of [[Cythera (island)|Cythera]], hence another of her names, \"Cytherea\".[Homer, \'\'Odyssey\'\' viii. 288; Herodotus i. 105; Pausanias iii. 23. ? 1; Anacreon v. 9; Horace, \'\'Carmina\'\' i. 4. 5.] Cythera was a stopping place for trade and culture between [[Crete]] and the [[Peloponnese|Peloponesus]], so these stories may preserve traces of the migration of Aphrodite\'s cult from the [[Levant|Middle East]] to mainland [[Greece]].\n\nIn the most famous version of her myth, her birth was the consequence of a castration: [[Cronus]] severed [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus\']] genitals and threw them behind him into the sea. The foam from his genitals gave rise to Aphrodite (hence her name, meaning \"foam-arisen\"), while the [[Erinyes]] (furies), and the [[Meliae]] emerged from the drops of his blood.[{{cite book | title=The Greek Myths | publisher=Penguin Books | author=Graves, Robert | year=1960 | location=London | pages=37 | isbn=9780140171990}}] [[Hesiod\'s Theogony|Hesiod]] states that the genitals \"were carried over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the immortal flesh; with it a girl grew.\" The girl, Aphrodite, floated ashore on a [[scallop]] shell. This iconic representation of Aphrodite as a mature \"Venus rising from the sea\" (\'\'[[Venus Anadyomene]]\'\'[\'\'??????????\'\' (\'\'Anady?men?\'\'), \"rising up\".]) was made famous in a much-admired painting by [[Apelles]], now lost, but described in the \'\'[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]\'\' of [[Pliny the Elder]].\n\n[[File:Aphrodites Rock.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Petra tou Romiou]] (\"The rock of the [[Greeks|Greek]]\"), Aphrodite\'s legendary birthplace in [[Paphos]], Cyprus.]]\n\nIn another version of her origin,[\'\'[[Iliad]]\'\' (Book V)] she was considered a daughter of Zeus and [[Dione (Titaness/Oceanid)|Dione]], the mother goddess whose oracle was at [[Dodona]]. Aphrodite herself was sometimes also referred to as \"Dione\". \"Dione\" seems to be a feminine form of \"Dios\", \"of Zeus\", the [[genitive]] form case of [[Zeus]], and could be taken to mean simply \"(she) that belongs to Zeus\" in a generic sense. Aphrodite might, then, be an equivalent of [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]], the [[Earth Mother]], whom Homer relocated to Olympus.\n\n===Adulthood===\nAphrodite is consistently portrayed, in every image and story, as having had no childhood, and instead being born as a nubile, infinitely desirable adult. She is often depicted nude. In many of the later myths, she is portrayed as vain, ill-tempered, and easily offended. Although she is married?she is one of the few gods in the [[List of Greek mythological characters|Greek Pantheon]] who is?she is frequently unfaithful to her husband.\n\nAccording to one version of Aphrodite\'s story, because of her immense beauty Zeus fears that the other gods will become violent with each other in their rivalry to possess her. To forestall this, he forces her to marry [[Hephaestus]], the dour, humorless god of smithing. In another version of the story, his mother, [[Hera]] casts him off Olympus, deeming him too ugly and deformed to inhabit the home of the gods. His revenge is to trap his mother in a magic throne. In return for her release, he demands to be given Aphrodite\'s hand in marriage.\n\nHephaestus is overjoyed to be married to the goddess of beauty, and forges her beautiful jewelry, including the \'\'cestus\'\', a girdle that makes her even more irresistible to men. Her unhappiness with her marriage causes Aphrodite to seek other male companionship, most often Ares, but also sometimes [[Adonis]].\n\nAphrodite\'s husband [[Hephaestus]] is one of the most even-tempered of the Hellenic deities, but in the \'\'[[Odyssey]]\'\', she is portrayed as preferring [[Ares]], the volatile god of war, because she is attracted to his violent nature.\n\nAphrodite is a major figure in the [[Trojan War]] legend. She is a contestant in the \"Judgement of Paris\" (see below), which leads to the war. She had been the lover of the Trojan [[Anchises]], and mother of his son [[Aeneas]]. Later, during the war, she saves Aeneas from [[Diomedes]], who wounds her.\n\n===Adonis===\n{{Main|Adonis}}\n[[File:Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) (Italian - Venus and Adonis - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|370px|\'\'Venus and Adonis\'\' by [[Titian]], \'\'circa\'\' 1554.]]\n\nThe most prominent lover of Aphrodite is [[Adonis]]. He is the child of [[Myrrha]], cursed by Aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father, King [[Cinyras]] of [[Cyprus]], after Myrrha\'s mother bragged that her daughter is more beautiful than the goddess. Driven out after becoming pregnant, Myrrha is changed into a [[myrrh]] tree, but still gives birth to Adonis.\n\nAphrodite finds the baby, and takes him to the underworld to be fostered by [[Persephone]]. She returns for him when he is grown and strikingly handsome, but Persephone wants to keep him. Zeus decrees that Adonis will spend a third of the year with Aphrodite, a third with Persephone, and a third with whomever he wishes. Adonis chooses Aphrodite, and they are constantly together.\n\nAdonis, who loves hunting, is slain by a wild boar. He bleeds to death, and Aphrodite can only mourn over his body. She causes [[anemone]]s to grow wherever his blood fell, and decrees a festival on the anniversary of his death.\n\nThe shade of Adonis is received in the underworld by Persephone. Aphrodite wants to return him to life. Again, she and Persephone bicker. Zeus intervenes again, decreeing that Adonis will spend six months with Aphrodite and six months with Persephone.\n\n===The Judgement of Paris===\n{{Main|Judgement of Paris}}\n\n[[File:Enrique Simonet - El Juicio de Paris - 1904.jpg|thumb|right||This painting shows [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] surveying Aphrodite naked, with the other two goddesses watching nearby. This is one of the [[Judgement of Paris#Gallery|numerous works]] that depict the event. (\'\'[[El Juicio de Paris (Simonet)|El Juicio de Paris]]\'\' by [[Enrique Simonet]], \'\'circa\'\' 1904)]]\n\nThe gods are all invited to the marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] (the eventual parents of [[Achilles]]), except [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]], goddess of discord. In revenge, Eris makes a golden [[Apple of Discord]] inscribed \'\'kallist?i\'\' (\"to the fairest one\"), which she throws among the goddesses. Aphrodite, [[Hera]], and [[Athena]] all claim it.\n\n[[Zeus]] delegates the choice to a mortal, [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]]. The goddesses offer him bribes. Hera offers him supreme power, and Athena offers him wisdom, fame, and glory in battle. Aphrodite offers him [[Helen of Troy]], the most beautiful mortal woman in the world, as a wife. As the goddess of desire, she causes Paris to become inflamed with desire for Helen at first sight, and he awards the Apple to her. Helen is already married to King [[Menelaus]] of [[Sparta#Prehistory|Sparta]]. The other two goddesses are enraged by this, and through Helen\'s abduction by Paris, they bring about the [[Trojan War]].\n\n===Consorts and children===\n# [[Hephaestus]]\n# [[Ares]]\n## [[Phobos (mythology)|Phobos]]\n## [[Deimos (mythology)|Deimos]]\n## [[Harmonia (mythology)|Harmonia]]\n## [[Adrestia]] (or [[Adrasteia]] (nymph) or [[Adrasteia (goddess)]])\n## [[Erotes (mythology)|The Erotes]]\n### [[Eros]][\n### [[Anteros]]\n### [[Himeros]]\n### [[Pothos (mythology)|Pothos]]\n# [[Poseidon]]\n## [[Rhode (mythology)|Rhode]] (possibly)\n# [[Hermes]]\n## [[Tyche]] (possibly)\n## [[Hermaphroditos]]\n# [[Dionysus]]\n## The [[Charites]] (Graces)\n### [[Thalia (Grace)|Thalia]]\n### [[Euphrosyne (mythology)|Euphrosyne]]\n### [[Aglaea]]\n## [[Priapus]] ([[Nota bene|N.B.]] Some say that Adonis, not Dionysus was the father of Priapus)][{{cite book | title=The Greek Myths | publisher=Penguin Books | author=Graves, Robert | year=1960 | location=London | pages=70 | isbn=9780140171990}}]\n# Zeus \n## Tyche (possibly)\n#[[Adonis]]\n##[[Beroe (mythology)|Beroe]]\n##[[Golgos]][[[Hesychius of Alexandria]] s. v. ??????????: \"Meligounis: this is what the island [[Lipara]] was called. Also one of the daughters of Aphrodite.\"]\n## [[Peitho]]\n\n===Other myths===\n[[File:Turtle Aphrodite AO20126 mp3h9188.jpg|thumb|\'\'Aphrodite Ourania\'\', draped rather than nude, with her foot resting on a [[tortoise]] ([[Mus?e du Louvre]])]]\n\nIn one version of [[Hippolytus (mythology)|the legend of Hippolytus]], Aphrodite is the cause of his death. He scorned the worship of Aphrodite, preferring [[Artemis]]. Aphrodite caused his stepmother, [[Phaedra (mythology)|Phaedra]], to fall in love with him, knowing Hippolytus would reject her. This led to Phaedra\'s suicide, and the death of Hippolytus.\n\n[[Glaucus (son of Sisyphus)|Glaucus]] of Corinth angered Aphrodite. During the chariot race at the funeral games of King [[Pelias]], she drove his horses mad and they tore him apart.[[[Hyginus]], \'\'Fabulae\'\' 250.3, 273.11; [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], \'\'Guide to Greece\'\' 6.20.19]\n\n[[Polyphonte]] was a young woman who chose virginal life with Artemis instead of marriage and children, as favoured by Aphrodite. Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to have children by a bear. The resulting offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the whole family were transformed into birds and more specifically ill portents for mankind.[[[Antoninus Liberalis]], \'\'Metamorphoses\'\', 21]\n\n==Forms of Aphrodite==\n{{About||the Amathusian Aphrodite|Aphroditus}}\n[[File:The Birth of Venus by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1879).jpg|thumb|\'\'[[The Birth of Venus (Bouguereau)|The Birth of Venus]]\'\' by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]], c. 1879]]\n\nBy the late 5th century BC, certain philosophers had begun to draw a distinction between two separate \"Aphrodites\" (as opposed to a single Aphrodite whose characteristics varied slightly in different local cults of the goddess): \'\'Aphrodite Ourania\'\', the celestial Aphrodite, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and \'\'Aphrodite Pandemos\'\', the common Aphrodite \"of all the folk\", born from the union of Zeus and [[Dione (Titaness/Oceanid)|Dione]].[E.g. [[Plato]], \'\'[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]\'\' 181a-d.] Among the [[neo-Platonist]]s and, later, their Christian interpreters, Aphrodite Ourania is associated with spiritual love, and Aphrodite Pandemos with physical love (desire). A representation of Aphrodite Ourania with her foot resting on a tortoise came to be seen as emblematic of discretion in conjugal love. (We know of this representation, said to have been a [[chryselephantine]] sculpture made by [[Phidias]] for [[Elis]], only from a parenthetical comment by the geographer [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]]).[Pausanias, \'\'Periegesis\'\' vi.25.1; \'\'Aphrodite Pandemos\'\' was represented in the same temple riding on a goat, symbol of purely carnal rut: \"The meaning of the tortoise and of the he-goat I leave to those who care to guess,\" Pausanias remarks. The image was taken up again after the Renaissance: see [http://www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/emblem.php?id=FALc195 Andrea Alciato, \'\'Emblemata / Les emblemes\'\' (1584)].]\n\nIn the \'\'[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]\'\',[Plato, \'\'[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]\'\' 180e.] of [[Plato]], [[Pausanias of Athens|Pausanias]] (no relation to the geographer Pausanias) describes Aphrodite. He distinguishes two manifestations of Aphrodite, represented by the two stories of her creation. The older one, \'\'Aphrodite Ourania\'\' (\"heavenly\" Aphrodite), is the daughter of Uranus, and inspires homosexual male (and more specifically, [[Ephebic Oath|ephebic]]) love/eros. The younger, \'\'Aphrodite Pandemos\'\' (\"Common\" Aphrodite) is the daughter of Zeus and Dione, and all love for women comes from her.[Richard L. Hunter, \'\'Plato\'s Symposium\'\', Oxford University Press: 2004, p. 44]\n\nAphrodite is also known as Areia, showing her connection to Ares, the god of war, whom she had extramarital relations with.[T.T. Kroon, art. Areia (1), in T.T. Kroon, \'\'Mythologisch Woordenboek\'\', ?s Gravenshage, 1875.] As a result, she was, to some extent, made into a goddess of war. This is especially true in Sparta.\n\n==Cult of Aphrodite==\nThe epithet \'\'Aphrodite Acidalia\'\' was occasionally added to her name, after the spring she used for bathing, located in [[Boeotia]] ([[Virgil]] I, 720). She was also called \'\'Kypris\'\' or \'\'Cytherea\'\' after her birth-places in [[Cyprus]] and [[Cythera (island)|Cythera]], respectively, both centers of her cult. She was associated with [[Hesperides|Hesperia]] and frequently accompanied by the [[Oread]]s, [[nymph]]s of the mountains.\n\nHer festival, \'\'[[Aphrodisia]]\'\', was celebrated across Greece, but particularly in [[Athens]] and [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]]. At the temple of Aphrodite on the summit of [[Acrocorinth]] (before the Roman destruction of the city in 146 BC), intercourse with her priestesses was considered a method of worshiping Aphrodite. This temple was not rebuilt when the city was re-established under Roman rule in 44 BC, but the fertility rituals likely continued in the main city near the agora.\n\nAphrodite was associated with, and often depicted with, the sea, dolphins, doves, swans, [[pomegranate]]s, sceptres, apples, [[Myrtus|myrtle]], rose trees, [[lime (fruit)|lime]] trees, clams, scallop shells, and pearls.\n\nOne aspect of the [[cult (religion)|cult]] of Aphrodite and her precedents that [[Thomas Bulfinch]]\'s much-reprinted \'\'The Age of Fable; or Stories of Gods and Heroes\'\' (1855 etc.) elided[\"Our work is not for the learned, nor for the theologian, nor for the philosopher, but for the reader of English literature, of either sex, who wishes to comprehend the allusions so frequently made by public speakers, lecturers, essayists, and poets, and those which occur in polite conversation.\" Bulfinch\'s obituary in the \'\'Boston Evening Standard\'\' noted that the contents were \"expurgated of all that would be offensive\".] was the practice of [[Religious prostitution|ritual prostitution]] in her shrines and temples. The euphemism in Greek is \'\'hierodoule\'\', \"sacred slave.\" The practice was an inherent part of the rituals owed to Aphrodite\'s Near Eastern forebears, Sumerian [[Inanna]] and Akkadian [[Ishtar]], whose temple priestesses were the \"women of Ishtar,\" \'\'ishtaritum\'\'.[Miroslav Marcovich, \"From Ishtar to Aphrodite\" \'\'Journal of Aesthetic Education\'\' \'\'\'30\'\'\'.2, Special Issue: Distinguished Humanities Lectures II (Summer 1996) p 49.]\n\nThe practice has been documented in Babylon, Syria, and Palestine, in Phoenician cities and the [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyrian]] colony [[Carthage]], and for Hellenic Aphrodite in [[Cyprus]], the center of her cult, Cythera, [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]], and in Sicily (Marcovich 1996:49); the practice however is not attested in Athens. Aphrodite was everywhere the patroness of the \'\'[[hetaera]]\'\' and [[courtesan]]. In [[Ionia]] on the coast of Asia Minor, \'\'[[Hierodule|hierodoulai]]\'\' served in the [[temple of Artemis]].\n\n===Modern worship of Aphrodite===\nAs one of the Twelve Olympians of the Greek pantheon and thus a major deity, worship of Aphrodite, (or \'\'Aphrod?ti\'\'), as a living goddess is one of the more prominent devotionals in \'\'[[Hellenismos]]\'\' (Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism),[[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22972610 BBC News - The Greeks who worship the ancient gods]] the revival of ancient Greek religious practices in the present day.[[http://paganwiccan.about.com/od/pagantraditions/p/Hellenism.htm Hellenic Polytheism: Following the Ways of the Ancient Greeks]]\n\nHellenic polytheists of today celebrate their religious devotion to Aphrodite on two annual and monthly festival days. Aphrodisia is her main festival day, which is celebrated on the 4th day of \'\'Hekatombaion\'\' in the [[Attic calendar]], falling in the months of July and August in the [[Gregorian calendar]], depending on the year. Adonia, a joint festival of Aphrodite and her partner Adonis, is celebrated on the first [[full moon]] following the [[Northern spring equinox]], often roughly as the same week the Christian festival of [[Easter]] is celebrated. The fourth day of each month is considered a sacred day of both Aphrodite and her son Eros.[[http://www.neokoroi.org/religion/gods/aphrodite Aphrodite]]\n\nDevotional offerings to Aphrodite can include incense, fruit (particularly apples and pomegranates), flowers (particularly fragrant roses), sweet dessert wine (particularly \'\'Commandaria\'\' wine from [[Cyprus]]), and cakes made with honey.[[http://paganwiccan.about.com/od/godsandgoddesses/a/Offerings_Gods.htm Offerings to the Gods]][[http://sacredhaven.ca/aphrodite Aphrodite | Sacred Haven Coven]]\n\n==Comparative mythology==\n\n===Ancient Near Eastern parallels===\nThe [[religions of the ancient Near East]] have a number of love goddesses that may be similar to certain aspects of Aphrodite.\n\nHer cult in Greece was imported from, or influenced by, the cult of [[Astarte]] in [[Phoenicia]].\n\nHans Georg Wunderlich further connects Aphrodite with the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[Snake Goddess|snake goddess]].[Wunderlich (R. Winston, tr.).\'\'The secret of Crete\'\' (1987:134)]\n\nThe Egyptian snake goddess [[Wadjet]] was associated with the city known to the Greeks as \'\'Aphroditopolis\'\' (the city of Aphrodite).[C.L. Whitcombe.\'\'Minoan snake goddess\'\'.8.\'\'Snakes, Egypt magic and women\'\'.[http://witcombe.sbc.edu/snakegoddess/ Minoan Snake Goddess]]\n\n[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] states the first to establish a cult of Aphrodite were the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]], after the Assyrians, the [[Paphos|Paphians]] of Cyprus, and then the Phoenicians at [[Ashkelon|Ascalon]]. The Phoenicians, in turn, taught her worship to the people of [[Cythera (island)|Cythera]].[Pausanias, Description of Greece, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Paus.+1.14.7 I. XIV.7]]\n\nAn origin of (or significant influence on) the Greek love goddess from Near Eastern traditions was seen with some skepticism in classical 19th century scholarship. Authors such as A. Enmann (\'\'Kypros und der Ursprung des Aphroditekultes\'\' 1881) attempted to portray the cult of Aphrodite as a native Greek development.\n\nScholarly opinion on this question has shifted significantly since the 1980s, notably due to [[Walter Burkert]] (1984), and the significant influence of the Near East on early Greek religion in general (and on the cult of Aphrodite in particular) is now widely recognized as dating to a period of [[Orientalizing period|orientalization]] during the 8th century BC, when [[archaic Greece]] was on the fringes of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].[see Burkert in his introduction to \'\'The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age\'\' (1992), especially in pp 1-6.]\n\nIn native Greek tradition, the planet Venus had two names, \'\'Hesperos\'\' as the evening star and \'\'Eosphoros\'\' as the morning star. The Greeks adopted the identification of the morning and the evening stars, as well as its identification as Ishtar/Aphrodite, during the 4th century BC, along with other items of Babylonian astrology, such as the [[zodiac]] ([[Eudoxus of Cnidus]]).\n\n===Comparison with the Indo-European dawn goddess===\nIt has long been accepted in [[comparative mythology]] that Aphrodite (regardless of possible oriental influences) preserves some aspects of the [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Indo-European]] dawn goddess [[Hausos|*Hausos]] (properly Greek [[Eos]], Latin [[Aurora (mythology)|Aurora]], Sanskrit [[Ushas]]).[Dum?zil, \'\'Ouranos-V?runa:?tude de mythologie comp?ree indo-europ?ene\'\'. Paris: Maisonneuve. 1934]\n\nJanda (2010) etymologizes her name as \"she who rises from the foam [of the ocean]\" and points to Hesiod\'s \'\'Theogony\'\' account of Aphrodite\'s birth as an archaic reflex of Indo-European myth. Aphrodite rising out of the waters after Cronus defeats Uranus as a mytheme would then be directly cognate to the [[Rig Veda|Rigvedic]] myth of [[Indra]] defeating [[Vrtra]], liberating [[Ushas]].[\n\n==Gallery==\n\nFile:CallipygianVenus.jpg|\'\'The [[Venus Kallipygos]].\'\' \'\'Aphrodite Kallipygos\'\' (\"Aphrodite of the Beautiful Buttocks\"),][The word callipygian is defined as \"having shapely buttocks\" by [[Merriam-Webster]].] is a type of nude female statue of the [[Hellenistic]] era. It depicts a partially draped woman[Conventionally presumed to be [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]], though it may equally be a portrait of a mortal woman, such as a [[hetaira]], or an image of the goddess modeled on one such] raising her light [[peplos]][The gesture of Aphrodite/Venus lifting the robe symbolized religious initiation and the ancient Greeks worshiped the woman\'s \"rich\" buttocks to obtain great wealth on earth as the two Syracusan sisters who inspired the Kallipygos idea had accomplished.] to uncover her [[hip (anatomy)#Cultural significance of hips|hips]] and [[buttocks]], and looking back and down over her shoulder, perhaps to evaluate them\nFile:Cnidus Aphrodite Altemps Inv8619.jpg|The Ludovisi \'\'Cnidian Aphrodite\'\', Roman marble copy (torso and thighs) with restored head, arms, legs and drapery support. The \'\'[[Aphrodite of Cnidus]]\'\' was one of the most famous works of the [[Attica|Attic]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]] [[Praxiteles]] (4th century BC).\nFile:Venere di Milo 02.JPG|\'\'[[Aphrodite of Milos]]\'\' (c.100 BC), [[Louvre]]\nFile:Venus pudica Massimo.jpg|\'\'[[Aphrodite of Menophantos]]\'\' a [[Venus Pudica]] signed by [[Menophantos]], 1st century BC, found at San Gregorio al Celio, Rome ([[Museo Nazionale Romano]]), of the [[Capitoline Venus]] type.\nFile:Aphrodite fountain.jpg|\'\'Fountain of Aphrodite in [[Mexico City]].\nFile:Aphrodite Heyl (2).jpg|\'\'[[Aphrodite Heyl]]\'\', [[terracotta]] statuette of very high quality, probably from [[Myrina (Mysia)|Myrina]], 2nd century BC\nFile:Aphrodite Anadyomene from Pompeii cropped.jpg|The [[Venus Anadyomene]], from [[Pompeii]], believed to be a copy of a lost work by [[Apelles]].\nFile:Ludovisi throne Altemps Inv8570.jpg|The [[Ludovisi Throne]] (460 BC?) is believed to be a classical Greek [[bas-relief]], although it has also been alleged to be a 19th-century forgery\nFile:Venus redon.jpeg|\'\'The Birth of Venus\'\' (1912), by [[Odilon Redon]].\nFile:Aphrodite swan BM D2.jpg|Aphrodite riding a swan: Attic white-ground red-figured \'\'[[kylix (drinking cup)|kylix]]\'\', c. 460, found at Kameiros (Rhodes).\n\n\n== See also ==\n{{Portal|Hellenismos|Greek mythology}}\n[[Hellenismos]]\n\n==References and sources==\n;References\n{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}\n;Sources\n* C. Ker?nyi (1951). \'\'The Gods of the Greeks\'\'.\n* Walter Burkert (1985). \'\'Greek Religion\'\' ([[Harvard University Press]]).\n\n==External links==\n{{wiktionary|????????}}\n{{Commons|Aphrodite}}\n*[http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/Aphrodite.html Theoi Project, Aphrodite] information from classical literature, Greek and Roman art\n*[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/19/arts/design/19wome.html?em The Glory which Was Greece from a Female Perspective]\n*[http://afrodite.saffo.googlepages.com/aphrodite-sappho.html Sappho\'s Hymn to Aphrodite, with a brief explanation]`\n\n{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}\n{{Greek religion}}\n{{Greek mythology (deities)}}\n{{List of mythological figures by region}}\n{{Paganism}}\n{{Paganism topics (contemporary)}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n[[Category:Aphrodite]]\n[[Category:Love and lust goddesses]]\n[[Category:Fertility goddesses]]\n[[Category:Eros in ancient Greece]]\n[[Category:Sexuality and religion]]\n[[Category:Deities in the Iliad]]\n[[Category:Deities, spirits, and mythic beings]]\n[[Category:Polytheism]]\n[[Category:Greek goddesses]]\n[[Category:Ancient Greek religion]]\n[[Category:Indo-European deities]]\n[[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (Greek)]]\n[[Category:Greek Love and Lust Deities]]'
'April_1' '{{pp-pc1}}\n{{pp-move-indef}}\n{{calendar}}\n{{This date in recent years}}\n{{Day}}\n\n==Events==\n* [[286]] – Emperor [[Diocletian]] elevates his general [[Maximian]] to co-emperor with the rank of [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]] and gives him control over the Western regions of the [[Roman Empire]].\n* [[325]] – Crown Prince [[Emperor Cheng of Jin|Jin Chengdi]], age 4, succeeds his father [[Emperor Ming of Jin|Jin Mingdi]] as emperor of the [[Jin dynasty (265?420)|Eastern Jin dynasty]].\n* [[457]] – [[Majorian]] is acclaimed emperor by the [[Late Roman army|Roman army]].\n* [[527]] – [[Byzantine Emperor]] [[Justin I]] names his nephew [[Justinian I]] as co-ruler and successor to the throne.\n* [[528]] – The [[daughter of Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei]] was made the \"[[Emperor of China|Emperor]]\" as a male heir of the late emperor by [[Empress Dowager Hu (Northern Wei)|Empress Dowager Hu]], deposed and replaced by [[Yuan Zhao]] the next day; she was the first female monarch in the [[History of China]], but not widely recognised.\n*[[1293]] – [[Robert Winchelsey]] leaves England for Rome, to be consecrated as [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].\n*[[1318]] – [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] is captured by the Scottish from [[Kingdom of England|England]].\n*[[1340]] – [[Niels Ebbesen]] kills [[Gerhard III, Count of Holstein-Rendsburg]] in his bedroom, ending the 1332-1340 \'\'[[interregnum]]\'\' in Denmark.\n*[[1545]] – [[Potos?]] is founded after the discovery of major silver deposits in the area.\n*[[1572]] – In the [[Eighty Years\' War]], the [[Geuzen|Watergeuzen]] capture [[Brielle]] from the [[Spanish Empire|Spaniards]], gaining the first foothold on land for what would become the [[Dutch Republic]].\n*[[1625]] – A combined Spanish and [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] fleet of 52 ships commences the [[recapture of Bahia]] from the Dutch during the [[Dutch?Portuguese War]].\n*[[1789]] – In New York City, the [[United States House of Representatives]] holds its first quorum and elects [[Frederick Muhlenberg]] of [[Pennsylvania]] as [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|its first Speaker]].\n*[[1826]] – [[Samuel Morey]] received a patent for a compressionless \"[[Internal combustion engine|Gas or Vapor Engine]].\"\n*[[1833]] – The [[Convention of 1833]], a political gathering of settlers in [[Mexican Texas]] to help draft a series of petitions to the Mexican government, begins in [[San Felipe, Texas|San Felipe de Austin]]\n*[[1854]] – [[Charles Dickens]]\' novel \'\'[[Hard Times]]\'\' begins serialisation in his magazine \'\'[[Household Words]]\'\'.\n*[[1865]] – [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Five Forks]]. [[Union Army]] led by [[Philip Sheridan]] decisively defeated [[Confederate States Army]] led by [[George Pickett]], leading to [[Third Battle of Petersburg|Breakthrough at Petersburg]] and [[Appomattox Campaign]].\n*[[1867]] – [[Singapore]] becomes a British [[crown colony]].\n*[[1871]] – The first stage of the [[Brill Tramway]] opens.\n*[[1873]] – The [[White Star Line|White Star]] steamer {{RMS|Atlantic}} sinks off [[Nova Scotia]], killing 547 in the worst marine disaster of the 19th century.\n*[[1887]] – [[Mumbai Fire Brigade]] is established.\n*[[1889]] – The [[University of Northern Colorado]] was established, as the Colorado State Normal School.\n*[[1891]] – The [[Wrigley Company]] is founded in [[Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]].\n*[[1893]] – The rank of [[Chief Petty Officer#United States|Chief Petty Officer]] in the [[United States Navy]] is established.\n*[[1908]] – The [[Territorial Force]] (renamed [[Territorial Army (United Kingdom)|Territorial Army]] in 1920) is formed as a volunteer reserve component of the [[British Army]].\n*[[1918]] – The [[Royal Air Force]] is created by the merger of the [[Royal Flying Corps]] and the [[Royal Naval Air Service]].\n*[[1919]] – The [[Bauhaus|Staatliches Bauhaus]] school is founded by [[Walter Gropius]] in [[Weimar]].\n*[[1922]] – Six Irish Catholic civilians [[Arnon Street killings|are shot and beaten to death]] by a gang of policemen in [[Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]].\n*[[1924]] – [[Adolf Hitler]] is sentenced to five years in [[Prison|jail]] for his participation in the \"[[Beer Hall Putsch]]\". However, he spends only nine months in jail, during which he writes \'\'[[Mein Kampf]]\'\'.\n* 1924 – The [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] is formed.\n*[[1933]] – The recently elected [[Nazism|Nazis]] under [[Julius Streicher]] organize a one-day boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in Germany, ushering in a series of [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] acts.\n*[[1935]] – India\'s central banking institution, The [[Reserve Bank of India]] is formed.\n*[[1936]] – [[Odisha]] formerly known as [[Kalinga (India)|Kalinga]] or Utkal becomes a state in India.\n*[[1937]] – [[Aden]] becomes a British [[crown colony]].\n* 1937 – [[Spanish Civil War]]: [[Ja?n, Spain]] is [[Bombing of Ja?n|bombed]] by Nazi forces.\n*[[1939]] – Spanish Civil War: [[Generalissimo|General?simo]] [[Francisco Franco]] of the [[Francoist Spain|Spanish State]] announces the end of the Spanish Civil War, when the last of the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican]] forces surrender.\n*[[1941]] – [[F?nt?na Alb? massacre]]: Between 200 and 2,000 [[Romanians|Romanian]] civilians are killed by [[Soviet Border Troops]].\n* 1941 – The [[Blockade Runner Badge]] for the German navy is instituted.\n* 1941 – A [[1941 Iraqi coup d\'?tat|military coup]] in [[Iraq]] overthrows the regime of [[\'Abd al-Ilah]] and installs [[Rashid Ali al-Gaylani]] as [[Prime Minister of Iraq|Prime Minister]].\n*[[1944]] – Navigation errors lead to an accidental American bombing of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] city of [[Schaffhausen]].\n*[[1945]] – [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Okinawa|Operation Iceberg]]: United States troops land on [[Okinawa Island|Okinawa]] in the last major campaign of the war.\n*[[1946]] – [[1946 Aleutian Islands earthquake|Aleutian Islands earthquake]]: An 8.6 magnitude earthquake near the [[Aleutian Islands]] creates a [[tsunami]] that strikes the [[Hawaiian Islands]] killing 159, mostly in [[Hilo, Hawaii|Hilo]].\n* 1946 – Formation of the [[Malayan Union]].\n*[[1947]] – [[Paul of Greece|Paul]] becomes king of Greece, on the death of his childless elder brother, [[George II of Greece|George II]].\n* 1947 – The only [[1947 Royal New Zealand Navy mutinies|mutiny]] in the history of the [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] begins.\n*[[1948]] – [[Cold War]]: [[Berlin Blockade|Berlin Airlift]]: Military forces, under direction of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-controlled government in [[East Germany]], set up a land blockade of [[West Berlin]].\n* 1948 – [[Faroe Islands]] gain [[self-governance|autonomy]] from Denmark.\n*[[1949]] – [[Chinese Civil War]]: The [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communist Party]] holds unsuccessful peace talks with the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist Party]] in Beijing, after three years of fighting.\n* 1949 – The [[Government of Canada]] repeals [[Japanese Canadian internment]] after seven years.\n* 1949 – The 26 counties of the [[Irish Free State]] become [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]].\n*[[1954]] – United States President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] authorizes the creation of the [[United States Air Force Academy]] in [[Colorado]].\n*[[1955]] – The [[EOKA]] rebellion against the British Empire begins in [[Cyprus]], with the goal of obtaining the desired unification (\"enosis\") with Greece.\n*[[1957]] – The [[BBC]] broadcasts the [[spaghetti-tree hoax]] on its current affairs programme \'\'[[Panorama (TV series)|Panorama]]\'\'.\n*[[1959]] – [[Archbishop Iakovos of America|Iakovos]] is enthroned as [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America|Greek Orthodox Archbishop of America]].\n*[[1960]] – The [[Television Infrared Observation Satellite|TIROS-1]] satellite transmits the [[:File:TIROS-1-Earth.png|first television picture from space]].\n* 1960 – [[Dr. Martens]] released its first boots, the model 1460.\n*[[1967]] – The [[United States Department of Transportation]] begins operation.\n*[[1969]] – The [[Hawker Siddeley Harrier]] enters service with the [[Royal Air Force]].\n*[[1970]] – President [[Richard Nixon]] signs the [[Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act]] into law, requiring the [[Surgeon General of the United States|Surgeon General]]\'s warnings on tobacco products and banning [[cigarette advertising]] on television and radio in the United States, starting on January 1, 1971.\n*[[1971]] – [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]: The [[Pakistan Army]] [[Jinjira massacre|massacre]] over 1,000 people in [[Keraniganj Upazila]], [[Bangladesh]].\n*[[1973]] – [[Project Tiger]], a [[tiger]] conservation project, is launched in the [[Jim Corbett National Park]], India.\n*[[1974]] – The [[metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England ]] come into being.\n*[[1976]] – [[Apple Inc.]] is formed by [[Steve Jobs]], [[Steve Wozniak]], and [[Ronald Wayne]].\n* 1976 – [[Conrail]] takes over operations from six bankrupt railroads in the [[Northeastern U.S.]].\n* 1976 – The [[Jovian?Plutonian gravitational effect]], soon revealed as an April Fools\' Day hoax, is first reported by British [[astronomer]] [[Patrick Moore]].\n*[[1978]] – The Philippine College of Commerce, through a presidential decree, becomes the [[Polytechnic University of the Philippines]].\n*[[1979]] – [[Iran]] becomes an [[Islamic republic]] [[Iranian Islamic Republic referendum, March 1979|by a 99% vote]], officially overthrowing the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah]].\n*[[1986]] – [[Sector Kanda]]: [[Communist Party of Nepal (Mashal)]] cadres attacks a number of police stations in [[Kathmandu]], seeking to incite a popular rebellion.\n*[[1989]] – [[Margaret Thatcher]]\'s new [[local government]] tax, the [[Community Charge]] (commonly known as the \"poll tax\"), is introduced in Scotland.\n*[[1997]] – [[Comet Hale?Bopp]] is seen passing at [[perihelion]].\n*[[1999]] – [[Nunavut]] is established as a Canadian territory carved out of the eastern part of the [[Northwest Territories]].\n*[[2001]] – An [[EP-3E]] United States Navy [[surveillance aircraft]] [[Hainan Island incident|collides]] with a Chinese [[People\'s Liberation Army]] [[Shenyang J-8]] [[fighter jet]]. The Navy crew makes an emergency landing in [[Hainan]], China and is detained.\n* 2001 – Former [[President of Yugoslavia|President]] of [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] [[Slobodan Milo?evi?]] surrenders to police [[special forces]], to be tried on [[war crime]]s charges.\n* 2001 – [[Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|Same-sex marriage]] becomes legal in the Netherlands, the [[Timeline of same-sex marriage|first]] contemporary country to allow it.\n*[[2004]] – [[Google]] announces [[Gmail]] to the public.\n* 2004 – [[Korea Train Express]] was opened to traffic from [[Seoul Station|Seoul]] to ?[[Dongdaegu Station|Dongdaegu]].\n*[[2006]] – The [[Serious Organised Crime Agency]], dubbed the \"British FBI\", is created in the United Kingdom.\n*[[2009]] – [[Croatia]] and [[Albania]] join [[NATO]].\n*[[2011]] – After protests against the [[Dove World Outreach Center Quran-burning controversy#2011 burning of the Quran|burning of the Quran]] turn violent, a mob attacks a [[United Nations]] compound in [[2011 Mazar-i-Sharif attack|Mazar-i-Sharif]], Afghanistan, resulting in the deaths of thirteen people, including eight foreign workers.\n\n==Births==\n*[[1220]] – [[Emperor Go-Saga]] of Japan (d. 1272)\n*[[1543]] – [[Fran?ois de Bonne, Duke of Lesdigui?res]] (d. 1626)\n*[[1578]] – [[William Harvey]], English physician and academic (d. 1657)\n*[[1610]] – [[Charles de Saint-?vremond]], French soldier and critic (d. 1703)\n*[[1629]] – [[Jean-Henri d\'Anglebert]], French organist and composer (d. 1691)\n*[[1640]] – [[Georg Mohr]], Danish mathematician and academic (d. 1697)\n*[[1647]] – [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester]], English poet and courtier (d. 1680)\n*[[1697]] – [[Antoine Fran?ois Pr?vost]], French author (d. 1763)\n*[[1721]] – [[Pieter Hellendaal]], Dutch-English organist, violinist, and composer (d. 1799)\n*[[1741]] – [[George Dance the Younger]], English architect and surveyor (d. 1825)\n*[[1753]] – [[Joseph de Maistre]], French philosopher, lawyer, and diplomat (d. 1821)\n*[[1755]] – [[Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin]], French lawyer and politician (d. 1826)\n*[[1765]] – [[Luigi Schiavonetti]], Italian engraver and etcher (d. 1810)\n*[[1776]] – [[Sophie Germain]], French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (d. 1831)\n*[[1815]] – [[Otto von Bismarck]], German lawyer and politician, 1st [[Chancellor of the German Empire]] (d. 1898)\n* 1815 – [[Edward Clark (governor)|Edward Clark]], American lawyer and politician, 8th [[Governor of Texas]] (d. 1880)\n*[[1823]] – [[Simon Bolivar Buckner]], American general and politician, 30th [[Governor of Kentucky]] (d. 1891)\n*[[1824]] – [[Louis-Z?phirin Moreau]], Canadian bishop (d. 1901)\n*[[1834]] – [[James Fisk (financier)|James Fisk]], American businessman (d. 1872)\n*[[1852]] – [[Edwin Austin Abbey]], American painter and illustrator (d. 1911)\n*[[1856]] – [[Acacio Gabriel Viegas]], Indian physician (d. 1933)\n*[[1865]] – [[Richard Adolf Zsigmondy]], Austrian-German chemist and academic, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. 1929)\n*[[1866]] – [[William Blomfield]], New Zealand cartoonist and politician (d. 1938)\n* 1866 – [[Ferruccio Busoni]], Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1924)\n* 1866 – [[?ve Lavalli?re]], French actress (d. 1929) \n*[[1868]] – [[Edmond Rostand]], French poet and playwright (d. 1918)\n* 1868 – [[Walter Mead (cricketer)|Walter Mead]], English cricketer (d. 1954)\n*[[1871]] – [[F. Melius Christiansen]], Norwegian-American violinist and conductor (d. 1955)\n*[[1873]] – [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1943)\n*[[1874]] – [[Ernest Barnes]], English mathematician and theologian (d. 1953)\n* 1874 – [[Prince Karl of Bavaria (1874?1927)|Prince Karl of Bavaria]] (d. 1927)\n*[[1875]] – [[Edgar Wallace]], English journalist, author, and playwright (d. 1932)\n*[[1879]] – [[Stanislaus Zbyszko]], Polish wrestler and strongman (d. 1967)\n*[[1880]] – [[Agha Petros]], Assyrian general (d. 1932)\n*[[1881]] – [[Henri Laurent]], French fencer (d. 1954)\n*[[1882]] – [[Paul Anspach]], Belgian fencer (d. 1991)\n*[[1883]] – [[Lon Chaney]], American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1930)\n* 1883 – [[Edvard Drabl?s]], Norwegian actor and director (d. 1976) \n* 1883 – [[Laurette Taylor]], American actress (d. 1946)\n*[[1885]] – [[Wallace Beery]], American actor, singer, and director (d. 1949)\n* 1885 – [[Clementine Churchill, Baroness Spencer-Churchill]], English wife of [[Winston Churchill]] (d. 1977)\n*[[1887]] – [[H. S. Lloyd]], English dog breeder (d. 1963)\n*[[1889]] – [[K. B. Hedgewar]], Indian physician and activist (d. 1940)\n*[[1893]] – [[Cicely Courtneidge]], Australian-English actress and singer (d. 1980)\n*[[1895]] – [[Alberta Hunter]], American singer-songwriter and nurse (d. 1984)\n* 1895 – [[Paul Richter]], Austrian actor (d. 1961)\n*[[1897]] – [[Nita Naldi]], American actress (d. 1961)\n*[[1898]] – [[William James Sidis]], American mathematician, anthropologist, and historian (d. 1944)\n*[[1899]] – [[Gustavs Celmi??]], Latvian academic and politician (d. 1968)\n*[[1901]] – [[Whittaker Chambers]], American journalist and spy (d. 1961)\n*[[1902]] – [[Maria Polydouri]], Greek poet (d. 1930)\n*[[1904]] – [[Sid Field]], English actor (d. 1950)\n* 1904 – [[?mile Turlant]], French centenarian (d. 2013)\n*[[1905]] – [[Gaston Eyskens]], Belgian economist and politician, 47th [[Prime Minister of Belgium]] (d. 1988)\n*[[1906]] – [[Alexander Sergeyevich Yakovlev]], Russian engineer, founded the [[Yakovlev|Yakovlev Design Bureau]] (d. 1989)\n*[[1908]] – [[Abraham Maslow]], American psychologist and academic (d. 1970)\n* 1908 – [[Harlow Rothert]], American shot putter, lawyer, and academic (d. 1997)\n*[[1909]] – [[Abner Biberman]], American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1977)\n* 1909 – [[Eddy Duchin]], American pianist and bandleader (d. 1951)\n*[[1910]] – [[Harry Carney]], American saxophonist and clarinet player (d. 1974)\n* 1910 – [[Bob Van Osdel]], American high jumper and soldier (d. 1987)\n*[[1911]] – [[Fauja Singh]], Indian-English runner\n*[[1912]] – [[Donald Nyrop]], American businessman (d. 2010)\n*[[1913]] – [[Memos Makris]], Greek sculptor (d. 1993)\n*[[1914]] – [[Lor Tok]], Thai actor (d. 2002)\n*[[1915]] – [[O. W. Fischer]], Austrian-Swiss actor and director (d. 2004)\n*[[1917]] – [[Leon Janney]], American actor (d. 1980)\n* 1917 – [[Dinu Lipatti]], Romanian pianist and composer (d. 1950)\n* 1917 – [[Sheldon Mayer]], American author and illustrator (d. 1991)\n* 1917 – [[Sydney Newman]], Canadian screenwriter and producer, co-created \'\'[[Doctor Who]]\'\' (d. 1997)\n* 1917 – [[Melville Shavelson]], American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2007)\n*[[1919]] – [[Joseph Murray]], American surgeon and soldier, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. 2012)\n*[[1920]] – [[Harry Lewis (actor)|Harry Lewis]], American actor and businessman (d. 2013)\n* 1920 – [[Toshiro Mifune]], Chinese-Japanese actor and producer (d. 1997)\n*[[1921]] – [[William Bergsma]], American composer and educator (d. 1994)\n* 1921 – [[Ken Reardon]], Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2008)\n* 1921 – [[Arthur \"Guitar Boogie\" Smith]], American guitarist, fiddler, and composer (d. 2014)\n*[[1922]] – [[Duke Jordan]], American pianist and composer (d. 2006)\n* 1922 – [[William Manchester]], American historian and author (d. 2004)\n*[[1923]] – [[Don Butterfield]], American tuba player (d. 2006)\n* 1923 – [[Leora Dana]], American actress (d. 1983)\n* 1923 – [[Bobby Jordan]], American actor (d. 1965)\n*[[1924]] – [[?kalja]], Serbian actor and singer (d. 2003)\n* 1924 – [[Brendan Byrne]], American lieutenant, judge, and politician, 47th [[Governor of New Jersey]]\n*[[1925]] – [[Kathy Stobart]], English saxophonist (d. 2014)\n*[[1926]] – [[Charles Bressler]], American tenor and educator (d. 1996)\n* 1926 – [[G?rard La Forest]], Canadian lawyer and judge\n* 1926 – [[John Scott Martin]], English actor (d. 2009)\n* 1926 – [[Anne McCaffrey]], American-Irish author (d. 2011)\n*[[1927]] – [[Walter Bahr]], American soccer player, coach, and manager\n* 1927 – [[Peter Cundall]], English-Australian soldier, horticulturist, and author\n* 1927 – [[Amos Milburn]], American singer and pianist (d. 1980)\n* 1927 – [[Ferenc Pusk?s]], Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 2006)\n*[[1928]] – [[George Grizzard]], American actor (d. 2007)\n*[[1929]] – [[Barbara Bryne]], English-American actress\n* 1929 – [[Jonathan Haze]], American actor, producer, screenwriter, and production manager\n* 1929 – [[Milan Kundera]], Czech-French author, poet, and playwright\n* 1929 – [[Payut Ngaokrachang]], Thai animator and director (d. 2010)\n* 1929 – [[Jane Powell]], American actress, singer, and dancer\n* 1929 – [[Bo Schembechler]], American football player and coach (d. 2006)\n*[[1930]] – [[F. Joseph Gossman]], American bishop (d. 2013)\n* 1930 – [[Eugene Weingand]], German-American actor (d. 1986)\n* 1930 – [[Grace Lee Whitney]], American actress and singer (d. 2015)\n*[[1931]] – [[George Baker (actor)|George Baker]], Bulgarian-English actor and screenwriter (d. 2011)\n* 1931 – [[Ita Ever]], Estonian actress\n* 1931 – [[Rolf Hochhuth]], German author and playwright\n*[[1932]] – [[Gordon Jump]], American actor (d. 2003)\n* 1932 – [[Debbie Reynolds]], American actress, singer, and dancer\n*[[1933]] – [[Claude Cohen-Tannoudji]], Algerian-French physicist and academic, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate\n* 1933 – [[Dan Flavin]], American sculptor and educator (d. 1996)\n* 1933 – [[Robert Shavlakadze]], Georgian high jumper\n*[[1934]] – [[Jim Ed Brown]], American singer-songwriter and guitarist ([[The Browns]]) (d. 2015)\n* 1934 – [[Don Hastings]], American actor, singer, and screenwriter\n* 1934 – [[Rod Kanehl]], American baseball player and manager (d. 2004)\n* 1934 – [[Marie Patterson]], English union leader\n* 1934 – [[Vladimir Posner]], French-American journalist and radio host\n*[[1935]] – [[Larry McDonald]], American physician and politician (d. 1983)\n*[[1936]] – [[Peter Collinson (film director)|Peter Collinson]], English-American director and producer (d. 1980)\n* 1936 – [[Jean-Pascal Delamuraz]], Swiss politician, 80th [[List of Presidents of the Swiss Confederation|President of the Swiss Confederation]] (d. 1998)\n* 1936 – [[Tarun Gogoi]], Indian politician, 14th [[Chief Minister of Assam]]\n* 1936 – [[Abdul Qadeer Khan]], Indian-Pakistani physicist, chemist, and engineer\n* 1936 – [[Don Steele]], American radio host (d. 1997)\n*[[1937]] – [[Jordan Charney]], American actor\n* 1937 – [[Y?lmaz G?ney]], Turkish actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1984)\n*[[1938]] – [[John Quade]], American actor (d. 2009)\n*[[1939]] – [[Rudolph Isley]], American singer-songwriter ([[The Isley Brothers]])\n* 1939 – [[Ali MacGraw]], American actress\n* 1939 – [[Phil Niekro]], American baseball player and manager\n*[[1940]] – [[Wangari Maathai]], Kenyan environmentalist and politician, [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. 2011)\n*[[1941]] – [[Gideon Gadot]], Israeli journalist and politician (d. 2012)\n* 1941 – [[Guy Trottier]], Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2014)\n* 1941 – [[Ajit Wadekar]], Indian cricketer, coach, and manager\n*[[1942]] – [[Brian Binley]], English businessman and politician\n* 1942 – [[Samuel R. Delany]], American author and critic\n* 1942 – [[Sava? Din?el]], Turkish actor (d. 2007)\n* 1942 – [[Roderick Floud]], English historian and academic\n* 1942 – [[Philip Margo]], American singer, drummer, and producer ([[The Tokens]])\n* 1942 – [[Annie Nightingale]], English radio host\n* 1942 – [[Richard D. Wolff]], American economist and academic\n*[[1943]] – [[Carol White]], English actress (d. 1991)\n* 1943 – [[Dafydd Wigley]], Welsh academic and politician\n*[[1944]] – [[Rusty Staub]], American baseball player and coach\n*[[1945]] – [[John Barbata]], American drummer ([[The Turtles]], [[Jefferson Airplane]], and [[The Sentinals (band)|The Sentinals]])\n*[[1946]] – [[Nikitas Kaklamanis]], Greek academic and politician, [[Ministry of Health and Social Security (Greece)|Greek Minister of Health and Social Security]]\n* 1946 – [[Ronnie Lane]], English bass player, songwriter, and producer ([[Faces (band)|Faces]] and [[Small Faces]]) (d. 1997)\n* 1946 – [[Eva Polttila]], Finnish journalist\n* 1946 – [[Arrigo Sacchi]], Italian footballer, coach, and manager\n*[[1947]] – [[Alain Connes]], French mathematician and academic\n* 1947 – [[Ne?e Karab?cek]], Turkish singer and actress\n* 1947 – [[Philippe Kirsch]], Canadian lawyer and judge\n* 1947 – [[Francine Prose]], American author, critic, and academic\n* 1947 – [[Robin Scott (singer)|Robin Scott]], English singer-songwriter and guitarist ([[M (band)|M]])\n* 1947 – [[Norm Van Lier]], American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2009)\n*[[1948]] – [[Jimmy Cliff]], Jamaican singer and actor\n* 1948 – [[Paul Myners, Baron Myners]], English journalist and politician\n* 1948 – [[J.J. Williams]], Welsh rugby player and sprinter\n*[[1949]] – [[G?rard Mestrallet]], French businessman\n* 1949 – [[Sammy Nelson]], Northern Irish footballer and coach\n* 1949 – [[Gil Scott-Heron]], American singer-songwriter and author (d. 2011)\n*[[1950]] – [[Samuel Alito]], American lawyer and jurist\n* 1950 – [[Loris Kessel]], Swiss race car driver (d. 2010)\n* 1950 – [[Daniel Paill?]], Canadian academic and politician\n*[[1951]] – [[John Abizaid]], American general\n* 1951 – [[Kay Davies]], English geneticist, anatomist, and academic\n* 1951 – [[Frederic Schwartz]], American architect, co-designed [[Empty Sky (memorial)|Empty Sky]] (d. 2014)\n*[[1952]] – [[Annette O\'Toole]], American actress, singer, and dancer\n* 1952 – [[Rey Robinson]], American sprinter and coach\n* 1952 – [[Bernard Stiegler]], French philosopher and academic\n*[[1953]] – [[Barry Sonnenfeld]], American director and producer\n* 1953 – [[Alberto Zaccheroni]], Italian footballer and manager\n*[[1954]] – [[?llar Kerde]], Estonian basketball player and coach\n* 1954 – [[Jeff Porcaro]], American drummer, songwriter, and producer ([[Toto (band)|Toto]] and [[Clover (band)|Clover]]) (d. 1992)\n* 1954 – [[Knut V?rnes]], Norwegian guitarist\n* 1954 – [[Arnold Sidebottom]], English footballer and cricketer\n* 1954 – [[Dave Ulliott]], English poker player (d. 2015)\n*[[1955]] – [[Don Hasselbeck]], American football player and sportscaster\n* 1955 – [[?lhan ?rem]], Turkish singer-songwriter\n* 1955 – [[Humayun Akhtar Khan]], Pakistani politician, 5th [[Commerce Minister of Pakistan]]\n* 1955 – [[Terry Nichols]], American criminal\n*[[1956]] – [[Jeffrey Beecroft]], American production designer and art director\n*[[1957]] – [[Andreas Deja]], Polish-American animator\n* 1957 – [[David Gower]], English cricketer and sportscaster\n* 1957 – [[Denise Nickerson]], American actress and singer\n* 1957 – [[Stephen O\'Brien]], Tanzanian-English lawyer and politician, [[Shadow Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills]]\n*[[1958]] – [[D. Boon]], American singer-songwriter and guitarist ([[Minutemen (band)|Minutemen]] and [[The Reactionaries]]) (d. 1985)\n* 1958 – [[Stephen O\'Rahilly]], Irish-British physician and academic \n*[[1959]] – [[Helmuth Duckadam]], Romanian footballer\n* 1959 – [[Ivan G\'Vera]], Czech-American actor\n* 1959 – [[Margita Stefanovi?]], Serbian keyboard player ([[Ekatarina Velika]]) (d. 2002)\n*[[1960]] – [[Shanna McCullough]], American porn actress and producer\n* 1960 – [[Michael Praed]], English actor\n* 1960 – [[Jennifer Runyon]], American actress\n* 1960 – [[J. Christopher Stevens]], American lawyer and diplomat, 10th [[United States Ambassador to Libya]] (d. 2012)\n*[[1961]] – [[Susan Boyle]], Scottish singer and actress\n* 1961 – [[Mark White (musician)|Mark White]], English singer-songwriter and guitarist ([[ABC (band)|ABC]])\n* 1962 – [[Mark Shulman (author)|Mark Shulman]], American author\n*[[1962]] – [[Chris Grayling]], English journalist and politician, [[Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain]]\n* 1962 – [[Samboy Lim]], Filipino basketball player and manager\n* 1962 – [[Phillip Schofield]], English television host\n*[[1963]] – [[Teodoro de Villa Diaz]], Filipino guitarist and songwriter ([[The Dawn (band)|The Dawn]]) (d. 1988)\n*[[1964]] – [[Erik Breukink]], Dutch cyclist and manager\n* 1964 – [[Kevin Duckworth]], American basketball player (d. 2008)\n* 1964 – [[John Morris (cricketer)|John Morris]], English cricketer\n* 1964 – [[Jos? Rodrigues dos Santos]], Portuguese journalist, author, and educator\n* 1964 – [[Scott Stevens]], Canadian ice hockey player and coach\n*[[1965]] – [[Tomas Alfredson]], Swedish actor, director, and screenwriter\n* 1965 – [[Mark Jackson (basketball)|Mark Jackson]], American basketball player and coach\n* 1965 – [[Robert Steadman]], English composer and conductor\n* 1965 – [[Simona Ventura]], Italian television host\n*[[1966]] – [[Chris Evans (presenter)|Chris Evans]], English radio and television host\n* 1966 – [[Sharon Hodgson]], English accountant and politician\n* 1966 – [[Craig Kelly (snowboarder)|Craig Kelly]], American snowboarder (d. 2003)\n* 1966 – [[Mehmet ?zdilek]], Turkish footballer and manager\n*[[1967]] – [[Nicola Roxon]], Australian lawyer and politician, 34th [[Attorney-General of Australia]]\n*[[1968]] – [[Julia Boutros]], Lebanese singer\n* 1968 – [[Traci Lind]], American actress\n* 1968 – [[Andreas Schnaas]], German actor and director\n* 1968 – [[Alexander Stubb]], Finnish academic and politician, 43rd [[Prime Minister of Finland]]\n*[[1969]] – [[Lev Lobodin]], Ukrainian-Russian decathlete\n* 1969 – [[Fadl Shaker]], Lebanese singer\n* 1969 – [[Dean Windass]], English footballer and manager\n*[[1970]] – [[Sung-Hi Lee]], South Korean-American model and actress\n* 1970 – [[Brad Meltzer]], American author, screenwriter, and producer\n* 1970 – [[Mark Wheeler]], American football player\n*[[1971]] – [[Sonia Bisset]], Cuban javelin thrower\n* 1971 – [[Method Man]], American rapper, producer, and actor ([[Wu-Tang Clan]])\n* 1971 – [[Jessica Collins]], American actress\n* 1971 – [[Karen Dunbar]], Scottish actress and screenwriter\n* 1971 – [[Lachy Hulme]], Australian actor and screenwriter\n* 1971 – [[Shinji Nakano]], Japanese race car driver\n* 1971 – [[Danielle Smith]], Canadian journalist and politician\n*[[1972]] – [[Darren McCarty]], Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster\n* 1972 – [[Jesse Tobias]], American guitarist and songwriter ([[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] and [[Splendid (musical duo)|Splendid]])\n*[[1973]] – [[Christian Finnegan]], American comedian and actor\n* 1973 – [[Stephen Fleming]], New Zealand cricketer and coach\n* 1973 – [[Joe Francis]], American businessman, founded [[Girls Gone Wild (franchise)|Girls Gone Wild]]\n* 1973 – [[Rachel Maddow]], American journalist and author\n* 1973 – [[Kris Marshall]], English actor\n* 1973 – [[Daryn Tufts]], American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter\n* 1973 – [[Kym Wilson]], Australian television host and actress\n*[[1974]] – [[Beatriz Batarda]], English-Portuguese actress\n* 1974 – [[Richard Christy]], American drummer and actor ([[Death (metal band)|Death]], [[Iced Earth]], and [[Charred Walls of the Damned]])\n* 1974 – [[Colby Donaldson]], American television host and actor\n* 1974 – [[John Glen (politician)|John Glen]], English politician\n* 1974 – [[Hugo Ibarra]], Argentinian footballer and manager\n* 1974 – [[Sandra V?lker]], German swimmer\n*[[1975]] – [[George Bastl]], Swiss tennis player\n* 1975 – [[John Butler (musician)|John Butler]], American-Australian singer-songwriter and producer ([[The John Butler Trio]])\n* 1975 – [[Pascal Witmeur]], Belgian racing driver\n*[[1976]] – [[David Gilliland]], American race car driver\n* 1976 – [[G?bor Kir?ly]], Hungarian footballer\n* 1976 – [[David Oyelowo]], English actor and producer\n* 1976 – [[As?m Pars]], Bosnian-Turkish basketball player\n* 1976 – [[Nicole Sanderson]], Australian beach volleyball player\n* 1976 – [[Clarence Seedorf]], Dutch-Brazilian footballer and manager\n* 1976 – [[Yuka Yoshida]], Japanese tennis player\n*[[1977]] – [[Vitor Belfort]], Brazilian-American boxer and mixed martial artist\n* 1977 – [[Jon Gosselin]], American television personality\n* 1977 – [[Haimar Zubeldia]], Spanish cyclist\n*[[1978]] – [[Antonio de Nigris]], Mexican footballer (d. 2009)\n* 1978 – [[Jean-Pierre Dumont]], Canadian ice hockey player\n* 1978 – [[Mirka Federer]], Slovak-Swiss tennis player\n* 1978 – [[Anamaria Marinca]], Romanian-English actress\n* 1978 – [[Etan Thomas]], American basketball player\n*[[1979]] – [[Ivano Bali?]], Croatian handball player\n* 1979 – [[Ruth Beitia]], Spanish high jumper\n*[[1980]] – [[Dennis Kruppke]], German footballer\n* 1980 – [[Randy Orton]], American wrestler and actor\n* 1980 – [[Bijou Phillips]], American actress and singer\n* 1980 – [[Y?ko Takeuchi]], Japanese actress\n*[[1981]] – [[Asl? Bayram]], German model and actress, [[Miss Germany|Miss Germany 2005]]\n* 1981 – [[Aimee Chan]], Canadian-Hong Kong model and actress, [[Miss Hong Kong|Miss Hong Kong 2006]]\n* 1981 – [[Antonis Fotsis]], Greek basketball player\n* 1981 – [[Bj?rn Einar Rom?ren]], Norwegian ski jumper\n* 1981 – [[Hannah Spearritt]], English actress and singer ([[S Club 7]])\n*[[1982]] – [[Sam Huntington]], American actor\n* 1982 – [[Taran Killam]], American actor and screenwriter\n* 1982 – [[Andreas Thorkildsen]], Norwegian javelin thrower\n*[[1983]] – [[John Axford]], Canadian baseball player\n* 1983 – [[Tamati Ellison]], New Zealand rugby player\n* 1983 – [[Lance Hohaia]], New Zealand rugby player\n* 1983 – [[Jussi Jokinen]], Finnish-American ice hockey player\n* 1983 – [[Matt Lanter]], American actor and model\n* 1983 – [[Sergey Lazarev]], Russian singer, actor, and dancer ([[Smash!!]])\n* 1983 – [[?lafur Ingi Sk?lason]], Icelandic footballer\n* 1983 – [[Sean Taylor]], American football player (d. 2007)\n*[[1984]] – [[Gilberto Macena]], Brazilian footballer\n*[[1985]] – [[Daniel Murphy (baseball)|Daniel Murphy]], American baseball player\n* 1985 – [[Beth Tweddle]], English gymnast\n* 1985 – [[Josh Zuckerman (actor)|Josh Zuckerman]], American actor\n*[[1986]] – [[Kid Ink]], American rapper\n* 1986 – [[Shunichi Miyamoto]], Japanese voice actor and singer\n* 1986 – [[Viktor Sanikidze]], Georgian basketball player\n* 1986 – [[Hillary Scott (singer)|Hillary Scott]], American singer-songwriter ([[Lady Antebellum]])\n* 1986 – [[Ireen W?st]], Dutch speed skater\n*[[1987]] – [[Kayla Collins]], American model\n* 1987 – [[Jenna Presley]], American porn actress\n* 1987 – [[Ding Junhui]], Chinese snooker player\n* 1987 – [[Gianluca Musacci]], Italian footballer\n* 1987 – [[Li Ting (diver)|Li Ting]], Chinese diver\n* 1987 – [[Oliver Turvey]], English race car driver\n*[[1988]] – [[Alexander Bychkov]], Russian serial killer\n* 1988 – [[Brook Lopez]], American basketball player\n* 1988 – [[Robin Lopez]], American basketball player\n* 1988 – [[Courtney McCool]], American gymnast\n* 1988 – [[Alessandra Perilli]], Sammarinese target shooter\n*[[1989]] – [[Jan Blokhuijsen]], Dutch speed skater\n* 1989 – [[David N\'Gog]], French footballer\n* 1989 – [[Yumi Sugimoto]], Japanese model, actress, and singer\n* 1989 – [[Christian Vietoris]], German race car driver\n*[[1990]] – [[Julia Fischer (athlete)|Julia Fischer]], German discus thrower\n* 1990 – [[Joe Partington]], English-Welsh footballer\n*[[1991]] – [[Graham Candy]], New Zealand singer-songwriter and actor\n* 1991 – [[Antonio Pontarelli]], American singer-songwriter and violinist\n*[[1992]] – [[Deng Linlin]], Chinese gymnast\n* 1992 – [[Sui Lu]], Chinese gymnast\n*[[1993]] – [[Blair Fowler]], American blogger\n* 1993 – [[Keito Okamoto]], Japanese singer ([[Hey! Say! JUMP]])\n* 1993 – [[Nico Schulz]], German footballer\n* 1993 – [[Linnea Regnander]], Swedish model\n*[[1994]] – [[Ella Eyre]], English singer-songwriter\n*[[1997]] – [[Asa Butterfield]], English actor\n* 1997 – [[?lex Palou]], Spanish racing driver\n\n\n==Deaths==\n*[[1085]] – [[Emperor Shenzong of Song]] (b. 1048)\n*[[1132]] – [[Hugh of Ch?teauneuf]], French bishop and saint (b. 1053)\n*[[1204]] – [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] (b. 1122)\n*[[1205]] – [[Amalric II of Jerusalem]] (b. 1145)\n*[[1528]] – [[Francisco de Pe?alosa]], Spanish composer (b. 1470)\n*[[1580]] – [[Alonso Mudarra]], Spanish guitarist and composer (b. 1510)\n*[[1621]] – [[Cristofano Allori]], Italian painter and educator (b. 1577)\n*[[1682]] – [[Franz Egon of F?rstenberg]], Bavarian bishop (b. 1625)\n*[[1787]] – [[Floyer Sydenham]], English scholar and academic (b. 1710)\n*[[1839]] – [[Benjamin Pierce (governor)|Benjamin Pierce]], American soldier and politician, 11th [[Governor of New Hampshire]] (b. 1757)\n*[[1865]] – [[Giuditta Pasta]], Italian soprano (b. 1797)\n*[[1872]] – [[William Frederick Horry]], English murderer (b. 1843)\n* 1872 – [[Frederick Denison Maurice]], English theologian and academic (b. 1805)\n*[[1878]] – [[John Corry Wilson Daly]], English-Canadian soldier and politician (b. 1796)\n*[[1890]] – [[David Wilber]], American politician (b. 1820)\n*[[1890]] – [[Alexander Mozhaysky]], Russian soldier, pilot, and engineer (b. 1825)\n*[[1897]] – [[Jandamarra]], Australian activist (b. 1873)\n*[[1914]] – [[Rube Waddell]], American baseball player (b. 1876)\n* 1914 – [[Charles Wells (brewer)|Charles Wells]], English founder of [[Charles Wells Ltd]] (b. 1842)\n*[[1915]] – [[Theodor Altermann]], Estonian actor and director (b. 1885)\n*[[1917]] – [[Scott Joplin]], American pianist and composer (b. 1868)\n*[[1920]] – [[Walter Simon (philanthropist)|Walter Simon]], German banker and philanthropist (b. 1857)\n*[[1922]] – [[Charles I of Austria]] (b. 1887)\n* 1922 – [[Hermann Rorschach]], Swiss psychologist and author (b. 1884)\n*[[1924]] – [[Jacob Bolotin]], American physician (b. 1888)\n*[[1924]] – [[Lloyd Hildebrand]], English cyclist (b. 1870)\n* 1924 – [[Stan Rowley]], Australian sprinter (b. 1876)\n*[[1925]] – [[Lars J?rgen Madsen]], Danish target shooter (b. 1871)\n*[[1930]] – [[Cosima Wagner]], Hungarian wife of [[Richard Wagner]] (b. 1837)\n*[[1946]] – [[Noah Beery, Sr.]], American actor and singer (b. 1882)\n*[[1947]] – [[George II of Greece]] (b. 1890)\n*[[1950]] – [[Charles R. Drew]], American physician and surgeon (b. 1904)\n* 1950 – [[Recep Peker]], Turkish soldier and politician, 6th [[List of Prime Ministers of Turkey|Prime Minister of Turkey]] (b. 1889)\n*[[1962]] – [[Jussi Kekkonen]], Finnish captain and businessman (b. 1910)\n*[[1965]] – [[Helena Rubinstein]], Polish-American businesswoman (b. 1870)\n*[[1966]] – [[Brian O\'Nolan]], Irish author and playwright (b. 1911)\n*[[1967]] – [[??ng V?n Ng?]], Vietnamese physician (b. 1910)\n*[[1968]] – [[Lev Landau]], Azerbaijani-Russian physicist and academic, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. 1908)\n*[[1976]] – [[Max Ernst]], German painter and sculptor (b. 1891)\n*[[1979]] – [[Bruno Coquatrix]], French talent manager (b. 1910)\n* 1979 – [[Barbara Luddy]], American actress and singer (b. 1908)\n*[[1981]] – [[Eua Sunthornsanan]], Thai singer-songwriter and bandleader (b. 1910)\n*[[1984]] – [[Marvin Gaye]], American singer-songwriter ([[The Moonglows]]) (b. 1939)\n* 1984 – [[Elizabeth Goudge]], English author (b. 1900)\n*[[1985]] – [[Douglass Wallop]], American author and playwright (b. 1920)\n*[[1986]] – [[Erik Bruhn]], Danish actor, director, and choreographer (b. 1928)\n*[[1988]] – [[Jim Jordan (actor)|Jim Jordan]], American actor (b. 1896)\n*[[1991]] – [[Martha Graham]], American dancer and choreographer (b. 1894)\n* 1991 – [[Jaime Guzm?n]], Chilean lawyer and politician (b. 1946)\n*[[1992]] – [[Michael Havers, Baron Havers]], English lawyer and politician, [[Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain]] (b. 1923)\n* 1992 – [[Nigel Preston]], English drummer ([[The Cult]]) (b. 1959)\n*[[1993]] – [[Alan Kulwicki]], American race car driver (b. 1954)\n*[[1994]] – [[Robert Doisneau]], French photographer (b. 1912)\n*[[1995]] – [[H. Adams Carter]], American mountaineer, journalist, and educator (b. 1914)\n* 1995 – [[Lucie Rie]], Austrian-English potter (b. 1902)\n*[[1996]] – [[Jean Le Moyne]], Canadian journalist and politician (b. 1913)\n* 1996 – [[John McSherry]], American baseball player and umpire (b. 1944)\n*[[1997]] – [[Norman Carr]], English environmentalist and author (b. 1912)\n* 1997 – [[Makar Honcharenko]], Ukrainian footballer and manager (b. 1912)\n*[[1998]] – [[Gene Evans]], American actor (b. 1922)\n* 1998 – [[Rozz Williams]], American singer-songwriter and guitarist ([[Christian Death]], [[Shadow Project]], and [[Premature Ejaculation (band)|Premature Ejaculation]]) (b. 1963)\n*[[1999]] – [[Jesse Stone]], American pianist, songwriter, and producer (b. 1901)\n*[[2000]] – [[Alexander Mackenzie Stuart, Baron Mackenzie-Stuart]], Scottish lawyer and judge (b. 1924)\n*[[2001]] – [[Olivia Barclay]], English astrologer and author (b. 1919)\n* 2001 – [[Jo-Jo Moore]], American baseball player (b. 1908)\n* 2001 – [[Ayhan ?ahenk]], Turkish businessman, founded [[Do?u? Holding]] (b. 1929)\n* 2001 – [[Tr?nh C?ng S?n]], Vietnamese guitarist and composer (b. 1939)\n*[[2002]] – [[Simo H?yh?]], Finnish soldier and sniper (b. 1905)\n* 2002 – [[Aptullah Kuran]], Turkish scholar and academic (b. 1927)\n* 2002 – [[Gavin Pfuhl]], South African cricketer and sportscaster (b. 1947)\n*[[2003]] – [[Leslie Cheung]], Hong Kong singer-songwriter, producer, and actor (b. 1956)\n*[[2004]] – [[Paul Atkinson (guitarist)|Paul Atkinson]], English guitarist and producer ([[The Zombies]]) (b. 1946)\n* 2004 – [[Aaron Bank]], American colonel, founded the [[US Army Special Forces]] (b. 1902)\n* 2004 – [[Ioannis Kyrastas]], Greek footballer and manager (b. 1952)\n* 2004 – [[Carrie Snodgress]], American actress (b. 1945)\n* 2004 – [[Nilo Soruco]], Bolivian-Venezuelan singer-songwriter (b. 1927)\n*[[2005]] – [[Paul Bomani]], Tanzanian politician and diplomat, 1st [[Minister of Finance (Tanzania)|Tanzanian Minister of Finance]] (b 1925)\n* 2005 – [[Alexander Brott]], Canadian violinist, composer, and conductor (b. 1915)\n* 2005 – [[Harald Juhnke]], German actor and singer (b. 1929)\n* 2005 – [[Jack Keller (songwriter)|Jack Keller]], American songwriter and producer (b. 1936)\n* 2005 – [[Robert Coldwell Wood]], American political scientist and academic (b. 1923)\n*[[2006]] – [[In Tam]], Cambodian general and politician, 26th [[Prime Minister of Cambodia]] (b. 1916)\n*[[2007]] – [[Herb Carneal]], American sportscaster (b. 1923)\n*[[2008]] – [[Jake Warren]], Canadian soldier and diplomat, [[Canadian Ambassador to the United States]] (b. 1921)\n*[[2009]] – [[Lou Perryman]], American actor (b. 1941)\n*[[2010]] – [[John Forsythe]], American actor and producer (b. 1918)\n* 2010 – [[Tzannis Tzannetakis]], Greek soldier and politician, 175th [[Prime Minister of Greece]] (b. 1927)\n*[[2012]] – [[Ekrem Bora]], Turkish actor (b. 1934)\n* 2012 – [[Lionel Bowen]], Australian soldier, lawyer, and politician, [[Deputy Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. 1922)\n* 2012 – [[Giorgio Chinaglia]], Italian-American soccer player and radio host (b. 1947)\n* 2012 – [[Miguel de la Madrid]], Mexican banker, academic, and politician, 52nd [[President of Mexico]] (b. 1934)\n* 2012 – [[Leila Denmark]], American pediatrician (b. 1898)\n* 2012 – [[Jamaa Fanaka]], American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1942)\n* 2012 – [[N. K. P. Salve]], Indian accountant and politician (b. 1921)\n*[[2013]] – [[Pavel 183]], Russian painter (b. 1983)\n* 2013 – [[Badr bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]], Saudi Arabian commander (b. 1932)\n* 2013 – [[Asal Badiee]], Iranian actress (b. 1977)\n* 2013 – [[Moses Blah]], Liberian general and politician, 23rd [[President of Liberia]] (b. 1947)\n* 2013 – [[David Burge]], American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1930)\n* 2013 – [[Kildare Dobbs]], Canadian author (b. 1923)\n* 2013 – [[William H. Ginsburg]], American lawyer (b. 1943)\n* 2013 – [[Karen Muir]], South African swimmer and physician (b. 1952)\n* 2013 – [[Jack Pardee]], American football player and coach (b. 1936)\n* 2013 – [[Greg Willard]], American basketball player and referee (b. 1958)\n*[[2014]] – [[King Fleming]], American pianist and bandleader (b. 1922)\n* 2014 – [[Rudolph Hargrave]], American lawyer and judge (b. 1925)\n* 2014 – [[Jacques Le Goff]], French historian and author (b. 1924)\n* 2014 – [[Andrew Joseph McDonald]], American bishop (b. 1923)\n* 2014 – [[Bill Mitchell (ice hockey)|Bill Mitchell]], Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1930)\n* 2014 – [[Rolf Rendtorff]], German theologian and academic (b. 1925)\n*[[2015]] – [[John Paul Hammerschmidt]], American soldier and politician (b. 1922)\n* 2015 – [[Eddie LeBaron]], American football player, manager, and sportscaster (b. 1930)\n* 2015 – [[Cynthia Lennon]], English author (b. 1939)\n* 2015 – [[Misao Okawa]], Japanese super-centenarian (b. 1898)\n* 2015 – [[Nicolae Rainea]], Romanian footballer and referee (b. 1933)\n\n==Holidays and observances==\n*[[April Fools\' Day|April Fools\' Day or All Fools\' Day]]\n*Christian [[feast day]]:\n**[[Cellach of Armagh]]\n**[[Saint Hugh of Grenoble|Hugh of Grenoble]]\n**[[Frederick Denison Maurice]] ([[Episcopal Church (USA)]])\n**[[Melito of Sardis]]\n**[[Nuno ?lvares Pereira]]\n**[[Tewdrig]]\n**[[Theodora (Roman martyr)|Theodora]]\n**[[Walric, abbot of Leuconay]]\n**[[April 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]\n*[[Civil Service Day]] ([[Thailand]])\n*Earliest day on which [[Sizdah Be-dar]] can fall, while April 2 is the latest; celebrated on the 13th day after [[vernal equinox]]. ([[Iran]])\n*[[Edible Book Day]]\n*[[Fossil Fools Day]]\n*[[Kha b-Nisan]], the Assyrian New Year ([[Assyrian people|Assyrians]])\n*[[Islamic Republic Day]] ([[Iran]])\n*[[Odisha Day]] ([[Odisha]], India)\n*The [[Capture of Brielle]], marked a turning point in the uprising of the Low Countries against Spain in the [[Eighty Years\' War]]. ([[Brielle]])\n*[[Veneralia]], in honor of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]. ([[Roman Empire]])\n\n==External links==\n{{commons}}\n* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/1 BBC: On This Day]\n* {{NYT On this day|month=04|day=01}}\n* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&day=01 On This Day in Canada]\n{{months}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:April 01}}\n[[Category:Days of the year]]\n[[Category:April]]'
'Antisymmetric_relation' '{{Refimprove|date=January 2010}}\n{{Textbook|date=January 2010}}\nIn [[mathematics]], a [[binary relation]] \'\'R\'\' on a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] \'\'X\'\' is \'\'\'antisymmetric\'\'\' if there is no pair of distinct elements of \'\'X\'\' each of which is related by \'\'R\'\' to the other. More formally, \'\'R\'\' is antisymmetric precisely if for all \'\'a\'\' and \'\'b\'\' in \'\'X\'\'\n:if \'\'R(a,b)\'\' and \'\'R(b,a)\'\', then \'\'a\'\' = \'\'b\'\',\nor, equivalently,\n:if \'\'R(a,b)\'\' with \'\'a\'\' ? \'\'b\'\', then \'\'R(b,a)\'\' must not hold.\n\nAs a simple example, the [[divisibility]] order on the [[natural number]]s is an antisymmetric relation. And what antisymmetry means here is that the only way each of two numbers can be divisible by the other is if the two are, in fact, the same number; equivalently, if \'\'n\'\' and \'\'m\'\' are distinct and \'\'n\'\' is a factor of \'\'m\'\', then \'\'m\'\' cannot be a factor of \'\'n\'\'.\n\nIn [[mathematical notation]], this is:\n\n:\n\nor, equivalently,\n\n\n:\n\nThe usual [[order relation]] ? on the [[real number]]s is antisymmetric: if for two real numbers \'\'x\'\' and \'\'y\'\' both [[inequality (mathematics)|inequalities]] \'\'x\'\' ? \'\'y\'\' and \'\'y\'\' ? \'\'x\'\' hold then \'\'x\'\' and \'\'y\'\' must be equal. Similarly, the [[subset order]] ? on the subsets of any given set is antisymmetric: given two sets \'\'A\'\' and \'\'B\'\', if every [[Element (mathematics)|element]] in \'\'A\'\' also is in \'\'B\'\' and every element in \'\'B\'\' is also in \'\'A\'\', then \'\'A\'\' and \'\'B\'\' must contain all the same elements and therefore be equal:\n:\n\n[[partial order|Partial]] and [[total order]]s are antisymmetric by definition. A relation can be both [[symmetric relation|symmetric]] and antisymmetric (e.g., [[equality (mathematics)|the equality relation]]), and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric (e.g., the \"preys on\" relation on biological [[species]]).\n\nAntisymmetry is different from [[Asymmetric relation|asymmetry]], which requires both antisymmetry and [[reflexive relation|irreflexivity]].\n\n==Examples==\nThe relation \"\'\'x\'\' is even, \'\'y\'\' is odd\" between a pair (\'\'x\'\', \'\'y\'\') of [[integer]]s is antisymmetric:\n::[[File:Even and odd antisymmetric relation.png|Even and odd antisymmetric relation]]\n\nEvery [[asymmetric relation]] is also an antisymmetric relation.\n\n==See also==\n* [[Symmetric relation]]\n* [[Asymmetric relation]]\n* [[Symmetry in mathematics]]\n\n==References==\n*{{MathWorld | urlname=AntisymmetricRelation | title=Antisymmetric Relation}}\n*{{cite book |title=Theory and Problems of Discrete Mathematics |first=Seymour |last=Lipschutz |authorlink=Seymour Lipschutz |author2=Marc Lars Lipson |year=1997 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=0-07-038045-7 |page=33}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Antisymmetric Relation}}\n[[Category:Mathematical relations]]'
'Aleister_Crowley' '{{good article}}\n{{EngvarB|date=June 2014}}\n{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}\n{{Infobox person\n| name = Aleister Crowley\n| image = Aleister Crowley, wickedest man in the world.jpg\n| caption = Aleister Crowley, c. 1912\n| birth_name = Edward Alexander Crowley\n| birth_date = {{birth date|1875|10|12|df=y}}\n| birth_place = [[Royal Leamington Spa]], [[Warwickshire]]
England\n| death_date = {{death date and age|1947|12|1|1875|10|12|df=y}}\n| death_place = [[Hastings]], [[East Sussex]]
England\n| occupation = Occultist, poet, [[novelist]], mountaineer\n| spouse = [[Rose Edith Kelly]] (m.1903–09)
Maria Teresa Sanchez (m.1929–)\n| children = Nuit Ma Ahathoor Hecate Sappho Jezebel Lilith Crowley (1904–06)
Lola Zaza Crowley (1907–90)
Astarte Lulu Panthea Crowley (1920–2014)[{{cite web|title=Louise Muhler|url=http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/sfgate/obituary.aspx?n=louise-muhler&pid=173388202|website=SFGate|publisher=San Francisco Chroncile|accessdate=9 December 2014}}]
Anne Leah Crowley (1920)
Randall Gair Doherty (1937–2002)\n| parents = Edward Crowley and Emily Bertha Crowley (n?e Bishop)\n}}\n\n\'\'\'Aleister Crowley\'\'\' ({{IPAc-en|?|k|r|o?|l|i}}; born \'\'\'Edward Alexander Crowley\'\'\'; 12 October 1875 ? 1 December 1947) was an English [[occult]]ist, [[ceremonial magic]]ian, [[poetry|poet]], [[painting|painter]], [[novelist]], and [[mountaineering|mountaineer]]. He founded the religion and philosophy of [[Thelema]], identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the [[Aeon (Thelema)|?on of Horus]] in the early 20th century.\n\nBorn to a wealthy [[Plymouth Brethren]] family in [[Royal Leamington Spa]], [[Warwickshire]], Crowley rejected this [[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalist Christian]] faith to pursue an interest in [[Western esotericism]]. He was educated at the [[University of Cambridge]], where he focused his attentions on mountaineering and poetry, resulting in several publications. Some biographers allege that here he was recruited into a [[List of intelligence agencies of the United Kingdom|British intelligence agency]], further suggesting that he remained a spy throughout his life. In 1898 he joined the esoteric [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], where he was trained in ceremonial magic by [[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]] and [[Charles Henry Allan Bennett|Allan Bennett]]. Moving to [[Boleskine House]] by [[Loch Ness]] in Scotland, he went mountaineering in Mexico with [[Oscar Eckenstein]], before studying [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] practices in India. He married [[Rose Edith Kelly]] and in 1904 they honeymooned in [[Cairo]], Egypt, where Crowley claimed to have been contacted by a supernatural entity named [[Aiwass]], who provided him with \'\'[[The Book of the Law]]\'\', a sacred text that served as the basis for Thelema. Announcing the start of the ?on of Horus, \'\'The Book\'\' declared that its followers should adhere to the code of \"Do what thou wilt\" and seek to align themselves with their Will through the practice of [[Magick (Thelema)|magick]].\n\nAfter [[1905 Kanchenjunga expedition|an unsuccessful attempt to climb Kanchenjunga]] and a visit to India and China, Crowley returned to Britain, where he attracted attention as a prolific author of poetry, novels, and occult literature. In 1907, he and [[George Cecil Jones]] co-founded a Thelemite order, the [[A?A?]], through which they propagated the religion. After spending time in Algeria, in 1912 he was initiated into another esoteric order, the German-based [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (O.T.O.), rising to become the leader of its British branch, which he reformulated in accordance with his Thelemite beliefs. Through the O.T.O., Thelemite groups were established in Britain, Australia, and North America. Crowley spent the [[First World War]] in the United States, where he took up painting and campaigned for the German war effort against Britain, later revealing that he had infiltrated the pro-German movement to assist the British intelligence services. In 1920 he established the [[Abbey of Thelema]], a religious commune in [[Cefal?]], Sicily where he lived with various followers. His [[libertine]] lifestyle led to denunciations in the British press, and the Italian government evicted him in 1923. He divided the following two decades between France, Germany, and England, and continued to promote Thelema until his death.\n\nCrowley gained widespread notoriety during his lifetime, being a [[recreational drug use|recreational drug experimenter]], [[bisexual]] and an [[Individualism|individualist]] [[social criticism|social critic]]. He was denounced in the popular press as \"the wickedest man in the world\", and labelled a [[Satanism|Satanist]] because of his embrace of the title \'The Beast\'. Crowley has remained a highly influential figure over Western esotericism and the counter-culture, and continues to be considered a prophet in Thelema. In 2002, a [[BBC]] poll ranked him as the seventy-third [[100 Greatest Britons|greatest Briton of all time]].\n\n==Early life==\n\n===Youth: 1875?94===\nCrowley was born as Edward Alexander Crowley at 30 Clarendon Square in [[Royal Leamington Spa]], Warwickshire, on 12 October 1875.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=4?5|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=15|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=14}} His father, Edward Crowley (1834?87), was trained as an engineer, but his share in a lucrative family brewing business, Crowley\'s Alton Ales, had allowed him to retire before his son was born.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=2?3|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=31?23|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=4?8|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=14?15}} His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop (1848?1917), came from a Devonshire-Somerset family and had a strained relationship with her son; she described him as \"the Beast\", a name that he revelled in.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=3|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=18?21|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=13?16|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=17?21}} The couple had been married at London\'s Kensington Registry Office in November 1874,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=3|2a1=Kaczynski|2y=2010|2p=13?14|3a1=Churton|3y=2011|3p=17}} and were evangelical Christians. Crowley\'s father had been born a [[Quaker]], but had converted to the [[Exclusive Brethren]], a faction of a [[Christian fundamentalist]] group known as the [[Plymouth Brethren]], with Emily joining him upon marriage. Crowley\'s father was particularly devout, spending his time as a travelling preacher for the sect and reading a chapter from the Bible to his wife and son after breakfast every day.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=3?4, 6, 9?10|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=17?23|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=11?12, 16}} Following the death of their baby daughter in 1880, in 1881 the Crowleys moved to [[Redhill, Surrey|Redhill]], Surrey.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=6?7|2a1=Kaczynski|2y=2010|2p=16|3a1=Churton|3y=2011|3p=24}} At the age of 8, Crowley was sent to H.T. Habershon\'s evangelical Christian boarding school in [[Hastings]], and then to Ebor preparatory school in [[Cambridge]], run by the Reverend Henry d\'Arcy Champney, whom Crowley considered a sadist.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=12?14|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=25?29|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=17?18|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=24}}\n\nIn March 1887, when Crowley was 11, his father died of [[oral cancer|tongue cancer]]. Crowley described this as a turning point in his life,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=15|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=24?25|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=19|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=24?25}} and he always maintained an admiration of his father, describing him as \"his hero and his friend\".{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=10|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=21}} Inheriting a third of his father\'s wealth, he began misbehaving at school and was harshly punished by Champney; Crowley\'s family removed him from the school when he developed [[albuminuria]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1pp=27?30|2a1=Kaczynski|2y=2010|2pp=19, 21?22}} He then attended [[Malvern College]] and [[Tonbridge School]], both of which he despised and left after a few terms.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=32?39|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=32?33|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=27|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=26?27}} He became increasingly sceptical regarding Christianity, pointing out [[inconsistencies in the Bible]] to his religious teachers,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=15?16|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=25?26|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=23}} and went against the Christian morality of his upbringing by smoking, masturbating, and having sex with prostitutes from whom he contracted [[gonorrhea]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=26?27|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=33|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=24,27|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=26}} Sent to live with a Brethren tutor in [[Eastbourne]], he undertook chemistry courses at [[Eastbourne College]]. Crowley developed interests in [[chess]], poetry, and [[mountain climbing]], and in 1894 climbed [[Beachy Head]] before visiting the [[Alps]] and joining the [[Scottish Mountaineering Club]]. The following year he returned to the [[Bernese Alps]], climbing the [[Eiger]], [[Trift Glacier|Trift]], [[Jungfrau]], [[M?nch]], and [[Wetterhorn]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=39?43|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=30?32, 34|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=27?30|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=26?27}}\n\n===Cambridge University: 1895?98===\n\nHaving adopted the name of Aleister over Edward, in October 1895 Crowley began a three-year course at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he was entered for the [[Moral Science]] [[Tripos]] studying philosophy. With approval from his personal tutor, he changed to English literature, which was not then part of the curriculum offered.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=49|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=34?35|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=32|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=27?28}} Crowley spent much of his time at university engaged in his pastimes, becoming president of the chess club and practising the game for two hours a day; he briefly considered a professional career as a chess player.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=51?52|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=36?37|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=23}} Crowley also embraced his love of literature and poetry, particularly the works of [[Richard Francis Burton]] and [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]].{{sfnm|1a1=Kaczynski|1y=2010|1p=35}} Many of his own poems appeared in student publications such as \'\'[[Granta|The Granta]]\'\', \'\'Cambridge Magazine\'\', and \'\'Cantab\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=50?51|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=33?35}} He continued his mountaineering, going on holiday to the Alps to climb every year from 1894 to 1898, often with his friend [[Oscar Eckenstein]], and in 1897 he made the first ascent of the [[M?nch]] without a guide. These feats led to his recognition in the Alpine mountaineering community.{{sfnm|1a1=Symonds|1y=1997|1p=13|2a1=Booth|2y=2000|2pp=53?56|3a1=Sutin|3y=2000|3pp=50?52|4a1=Kaczynski|4y=2010|4p=35, 42?45, 50?51|5a1=Churton|5y=2011|5p=35}}\n\n{{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=left|quote=For many years I had loathed being called Alick, partly because of the unpleasant sound and sight of the word, partly because it was the name by which my mother called me. Edward did not seem to suit me and the diminutives Ted or Ned were even less appropriate. Alexander was too long and Sandy suggested tow hair and freckles. I had read in some book or other that the most favourable name for becoming famous was one consisting of a [[dactyl (poetry)|dactyl]] followed by a [[spondee]], as at the end of a [[hexameter]]: like \'\'Jeremy Taylor\'\'. Aleister Crowley fulfilled these conditions and Aleister is the [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] form of Alexander. To adopt it would satisfy my romantic ideals.|source=Aleister Crowley, on his name change.{{sfn|Crowley|1989|p=139}}}}\n\nCrowley later claimed to have had his first significant [[religious experience|mystical experience]] while on holiday in Stockholm in December 1896.{{sfnm|1a1=Symonds|1y=1997|1p=14|2a1=Booth|2y=2000|2pp=56?57|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=36|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=29}} Several biographers, including [[Lawrence Sutin]], [[Richard Kaczynski]], and [[Tobias Churton]], believed that this was the result of Crowley\'s first same-sex sexual experience, which enabled him to recognise his [[bisexuality]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1p=38|2a1=Kaczynski|2y=2010|2p=36|3a1=Churton|3y=2011|3p=29}} At Cambridge, Crowley maintained a vigorous sex life, largely with female prostitutes, from one of whom he caught [[syphilis]], but eventually he took part in same-sex activities, despite [[Offences against the Person Act 1861#Unnatural offences|their illegality]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=59?62|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=43|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=27?28}} In October 1897, Crowley met [[Herbert Charles Pollitt]], president of the [[Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club]], and the two entered into a relationship. They broke apart because Pollitt did not share Crowley\'s increasing interest in Western esotericism, a breakup that Crowley would regret for many years.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=64?65|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=41?47|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=37?40, 45|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=33?24}}\n\nIn 1897, Crowley travelled to [[St Petersburg]] in Russia, later claiming that he was trying to learn Russian as he was considering a future diplomatic career there.{{sfnm|1a1=Spence|1y=2006|1pp=19?20|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=37|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=35|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=30?31}} Biographers Richard Spence and Tobias Churton suggested that Crowley had done so as an intelligence agent under the employ of the British secret service, speculating that he had been enlisted while at Cambridge.{{sfnm|1a1=Spence|1y=2006|1pp=19?20|2a1=Churton|2y=2011|2pp=30?31}}\n\nIn October 1897, a brief illness triggered considerations of mortality and \"the futility of all human endeavour\", and Crowley abandoned all thoughts of a diplomatic career in favour of pursuing an interest in the occult.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=57?58|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=37?39|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=36}} In March 1898, he obtained [[A.E. Waite]]\'s \'\'The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts\'\' (1898), and then [[Karl von Eckartshausen]]\'s \'\'The Cloud Upon the Sanctuary\'\' (1896), furthering his occult interests.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=58?59|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=41|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=40?42}}\nIn 1898 Crowley privately published 100 copies of his poem \'\'Aceldama: A Place to Bury Strangers In\'\', but it was not a particular success.{{Sfnm|1a1=Symonds|1y=1997|1pp=14?15|2a1=Booth|2y=2000|2pp=72?73|3a1=Sutin|3y=2000|3pp=44?45|4a1=Kaczynski|4y=2010|4pp=46?47}} That same year he published a string of other poems, including \'\'[[White Stains]]\'\', a [[Decadent movement|Decadent]] collection of erotic poetry that was printed abroad lest its publication be prohibited by the British authorities.{{sfnm|1a1=Symonds|1y=1997|1p=15|2a1=Booth|2y=2000|2pp=74?75|3a1=Sutin|3y=2000|3pp=44?45|4a1=Kaczynski|4y=2010|4pp=48?50}} In July 1898, he left Cambridge, not having taken any degree at all despite a [[British undergraduate degree classification|\"first class\"]] showing in his 1897 exams and consistent \"second class honours\" results before that.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=78?79|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=35?36}}\n\n===The Golden Dawn: 1898?99===\n[[File:Aleister Crowley, Golden Dawn.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Crowley in [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]] garb]]\nIn August 1898, Crowley was in [[Zermatt]], Switzerland, where he met the chemist [[Julian L. Baker]], and the two began discussing their common interest in [[alchemy]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=81?82|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=52?53|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=52?53}} Back in London, Baker introduced Crowley to [[George Cecil Jones]], Baker\'s brother in-law, and a fellow member of the occult society known as the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], which had been founded in 1888.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=82?85|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=53?54|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=54?55}} Crowley was initiated into the Outer Order of the Golden Dawn on 18 November 1898 by the group\'s leader, [[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]]. The ceremony took place in the Golden Dawn\'s Isis-Urania Temple held at London\'s Mark Masons Hall, where Crowley took the magical motto and name \"Frater Perdurabo\", which he interpreted as \"I shall endure to the end\".{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=85, 93?94|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=54?55|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=60?61|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=35}} Biographers Richard Spence and Tobias Churton have suggested that Crowley joined the Order under the command of the British secret services to monitor the activities of Mathers, who was known to be a [[Carlism|Carlist]].{{sfnm|1a1=Spence|1y=2008|1pp=22?28|2a1=Churton|2y=2011|2pp=38?46}}\n\nCrowley moved into his own luxury flat at 67?69 [[Chancery Lane]] and soon invited a senior Golden Dawn member, [[Charles Henry Allan Bennett|Allan Bennett]], to live with him as his personal magical tutor. Bennett taught Crowley more about ceremonial magic and the ritual use of drugs, and together they performed the rituals of the \'\'[[Goetia]]\'\',{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=98?103|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=64?66|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=54?55, 62?64, 67?68|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=49}} until Bennett left for South Asia to study [[Buddhism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=103?105|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=70?71|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=70?71|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=55}} In November 1899, Crowley purchased [[Boleskine House]] in [[Foyers]] on the shore of [[Loch Ness]] in Scotland. He developed a love of Scottish culture, describing himself as the \"Laird of Boleskine\", and took to wearing traditional highland dress, even during visits to London.{{sfnm|1a1=Symonds|1y=1997|1p=29|2a1=Booth|2y=2000|2pp=107?111|3a1=Sutin|3y=2000|3pp=72?73|4a1=Kaczynski|4y=2010|4pp=68?69|5a1=Churton|5y=2011|5p=52}} He continued writing poetry, publishing \'\'Jezebel and Other Tragic Poems\'\', \'\'Tales of Archais\'\', \'\'Songs of the Spirit\'\', \'\'Appeal to the American Republic\'\', and \'\'Jephthah\'\' in 1898?99; most gained mixed reviews from literary critics, although \'\'Jephthah\'\' was considered a particular critical success.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=114?115|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=44?45|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=61, 66, 70}}\n\nCrowley soon progressed through the lower grades of the Golden Dawn, and was ready to enter the group\'s inner Second Order.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=115?116|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=71?72|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=64}} He was unpopular in the group; his bisexuality and [[libertine]] lifestyle had gained him a bad reputation, and he had developed feuds with some of the members, including [[W.B. Yeats]].{{sfnm|1a1=Symonds|1y=1997|1p=37|2a1=Booth|2y=2000|2pp=115?116|3a1=Sutin|3y=2000|3pp=67?69|4a1=Kaczynski|4y=2010|4pp=64?67}} When the Golden Dawn\'s London lodge refused to initiate Crowley into the Second Order, he visited Mathers in Paris, who personally admitted him into the Adeptus Minor Grade.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=116|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=73?75|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=70?73|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=53?54}} A schism had developed between Mathers and the London members of the Golden Dawn, who were unhappy with his autocratic rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=118|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=73?75|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=74?75|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=57}} Acting under Mathers\' orders, Crowley ? with the help of his mistress and fellow initiate [[Elaine Simpson]] ? attempted to seize the Vault of the Adepts, a temple space at 36 Blythe Road in [[West Kensington]], from the London lodge members. When the case was taken to court, the judge ruled in favour of the London lodge, as they had paid for the space\'s rent, leaving both Crowley and Mathers isolated from the group.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=118?123|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=76?79|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=75?80|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=58?60}} Spence suggested that the entire scenario was part of an intelligence operation to undermine Mathers\' authority.{{sfn|Spence|2008|p=27}}\n\n===Mexico, India, Paris, and marriage: 1900?03===\n\nIn 1900, Crowley travelled to Mexico via the United States, settling in [[Mexico City]] and taking a local woman as his mistress. Developing a love of the country, he continued experimenting with ceremonial magic, working with [[John Dee]]\'s [[Enochian]] invocations. He later claimed to have been initiated into [[Freemasonry]] while in the city, and spending time writing, he wrote a play based on [[Richard Wagner]]\'s \'\'[[Tannh?user (opera)|Tannh?user]]\'\' as well as a series of poems, published as \'\'Oracles\'\' (1905). Eckenstein joined him later that year, and together they climbed several mountains, including [[Iztaccihuatl]], [[Popocatepetl]], and [[Colima (volcano)|Colima]], the latter of which they had to abandon owing to a volcanic eruption.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=127?137|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=80?86|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=83?90|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=64?70}} Spence has suggested that the purpose of the trip might have been to explore Mexican oil prospects for British intelligence.{{sfn|Spence|2008|p=32}} Leaving Mexico, Crowley headed to [[San Francisco]] before sailing for Hawaii aboard the \'\'Nippon Maru\'\'. On the ship he had a brief affair with a married woman named Mary Alice Rogers; claiming to have fallen in love with her, he wrote a series of poems about the romance, published as \'\'Alice: An Adultery\'\' (1903).{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=137?139|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=86?90|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=90?93|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=71?75}}\n\n[[File:Aleister Crowley 1902 K2.jpg|left|thumbnail|Crowley during the K2 Expedition]]\nBriefly stopping at Japan and Hong Kong, Crowley reached Ceylon, where he met with Allan Bennett, who was there studying [[Shaivism]]. The pair spent some time in [[Kandy]] before Bennett decided to become a Buddhist monk in the [[Theravada]] tradition, travelling to Burma to do so.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=139?144|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=90?95|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=93?96|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=76?78}} Crowley decided to tour India, devoting himself to the Hindu practice of \'\'[[raja yoga]]\'\', from which he claimed to have achieved the spiritual state of \'\'[[Dhyana in Hinduism|dhyana]]\'\'. He spent much of this time studying at the [[Meenakshi Amman Temple]] in [[Madurai|Madura]], and also wrote poetry which was published as \'\'The Sword of Song\'\' (1904). He contracted [[malaria]], and had to recuperate from the disease in Calcutta and Rangoon.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=144?147|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=94?98|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=96?98|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=78?83}} In 1902, he was joined in India by Eckenstein and several other mountaineers: Guy Knowles, H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and [[Jules Jacot-Guillarmod]]. Together the Eckenstein-Crowley expedition attempted [[K2]], which had never been climbed. On the journey, Crowley was afflicted with [[influenza]], malaria, and [[snow blindness]], and other expedition members were also struck with illness. They reached an altitude of {{convert|20000|ft|m}} before turning back.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=148?156|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=98?104|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=98?108|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=83}}\n\nArriving in Paris in November 1902, he hung out with his friend and future brother-in-law, the painter [[Gerald Festus Kelly|Gerald Kelly]], and through him became a fixture of the Parisian arts scene, authoring a series of poems on the work of an acquaintance, the sculptor [[Auguste Rodin]], published as \'\'Rodin in Rime\'\' (1907).{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=159?163|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=104?108|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=109?115|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=84?86}} One of those frequenting this milieu was [[W. Somerset Maugham]], who after briefly meeting Crowley later used him as a model for the character of [[Oliver Haddo]] in his novel \'\'[[The Magician (Maugham novel)|The Magician]]\'\' (1908).{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=164?167|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=105?107|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2000|3pp=112?113|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=85}} Returning to Boleskine in April 1903, in August Crowley wed Gerald\'s sister [[Rose Edith Kelly]] in a \"marriage of convenience\" to prevent her entering an [[arranged marriage]]; the marriage appalled the Kelly family and damaged his friendship with Gerald. Heading on a honeymoon to Paris, Cairo, and then Ceylon, Crowley fell in love with Rose and worked to prove his affections. While on his honeymoon, he wrote her a series of love poems, published as \'\'Rosa Mundi and other Love Songs\'\' (1906), as well as authoring the religious satire \'\'Why Jesus Wept\'\' (1904).{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=171?177|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=110?116|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=119?124|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=89?90}}\n\n==Developing Thelema==\n\n===Egypt and \'\'The Book of the Law\'\': 1904===\n{{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=right|quote=Had! The manifestation of [[Nuit]].
The unveiling of the company of heaven.
Every man and woman is a star.
Every number is infinite; there is no difference.
Help me, o warrior lord of Thebes, in my unveiling before the Children of men!|source=The opening lines of \'\'The Book of the Law\'\'.}}\nIn February 1904, Crowley and Rose arrived in [[Cairo]]. Claiming to be a prince and princess, they rented an apartment in which Crowley set up a temple room and began invoking ancient Egyptian deities, while studying [[Islam]]ic [[mysticism]] and [[Arabic]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=181?182|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=118?120|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=124|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=94}} According to Crowley\'s later account, Rose regularly became delirious and informed him \"they are waiting for you\". On 18 March, she explained that \"they\" were the god [[Horus]], and on 20 March proclaimed that \"the Equinox of the Gods has come\". She led him to a nearby museum, where she showed him a seventh-century BCE mortuary [[stele]] known as the [[Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu]]; Crowley thought it important that the exhibit\'s number was 666, the [[number of the beast]] in Christian belief, and in later years termed the artefact the \"Stele of Revealing.\"{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=182?183|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=120?122|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=124?126|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=96?98}}\n\nAccording to Crowley\'s own later claims, on 8 April he heard a disembodied voice that claimed to be that of [[Aiwass]], an entity who was the messenger of Horus, or [[Heru-ra-ha|Hoor-Paar-Kraat]]. Crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days, and titled it \'\'Liber L vel Legis\'\' or \'\'[[The Book of the Law]]\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=184?188|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=122?125|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=127?129}} The book proclaimed that humanity was entering a new [[Aeon (Thelema)|Aeon]], and that Crowley would serve as its [[prophet]]. It stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this Aeon, \"Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law,\" and that people should learn to live in tune with their Will. This book, and the philosophy that it espoused, became the cornerstone of Crowley\'s religion, [[Thelema]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=184?188|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=125?133}} Crowley claimed that at the time he had been unsure what to do with \'\'The Book of the Law\'\'. Often resenting it, he said that he ignored the instructions which the text commanded him to perform, which included taking the Stele of Revealing from the museum, fortifying his own island, and translating the book into all the world\'s languages. According to his account, he instead sent typescripts of the work to several occultists he knew, putting the manuscript itself away and ignoring it.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=188|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=139|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=129}}\n\n===Kangchenjunga and China: 1905?06===\nReturning to Boleskine, Crowley came to believe that Mathers had begun using magic against him, and the relationship between the two broke down.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=189, 194?195|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=140?141|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=130|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=108}} On 28 July 1905, Rose gave birth to Crowley\'s first child, a daughter named Lilith, with Crowley authoring the pornographic \'\'Snowdrops From a Curate\'s Garden\'\' to entertain his recuperating wife.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=195?196|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=142|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=132|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=108}} He also founded a publishing company through which to publish his poetry, naming it the Society for the Propagation of Religious Truth in parody of the [[Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge]]. Among its first publications were Crowley\'s \'\'Collected Works\'\', edited by [[Ivor Back]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=190|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=142|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=131?133}} His poetry often received strong reviews (either positive or negative), but never sold well. In an attempt to gain more publicity, he issued a reward of ?100 for the best essay on his work. The winner of this was [[J. F. C. Fuller]], a British Army officer and military historian, whose essay, \'\'The Star in the West\'\' (1907), heralded Crowley\'s poetry as some of the greatest ever written.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=241?242|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=177?179|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=136?137, 139, 168?169}}\n\n[[File:Kanchenjunga India.jpg|left|thumb|[[Kangchenjunga]], as seen from [[Darjeeling]]]]\n\nCrowley decided to climb [[Kangchenjunga]] in the Himalayas of Nepal, widely recognised as the world\'s most treacherous mountain. Assembling a team consisting of [[Jules Jacot-Guillarmod|Jacot-Guillarmod]], Charles Adolphe Reymond, Alexis Pache, and Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, [[1905 Kanchenjunga expedition|the expedition]] was marred by much argument between Crowley and the others, who thought that he was reckless. They eventually mutinied against Crowley\'s control, with the other climbers heading back down the mountain as nightfall approached despite Crowley\'s warnings that it was too dangerous. Subsequently, Pache and several porters were killed in an accident, something for which Crowley was widely blamed by the mountaineering community.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=201?215|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=149?158|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=138?149|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=111?112}}\n\nSpending time in [[Hariharpur, India|Moharbhanj]], where he took part in [[big game hunting]] and wrote the homoerotic work \'\'The Scented Garden\'\', Crowley met up with Rose and Lilith in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]] before being forced to leave India after shooting dead a native man who tried to mug him.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=217?219|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=158?162|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=151?152}} Briefly visiting Bennett in Burma, Crowley and his family decided to tour Southern China, hiring porters and a nanny for the purpose.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=221|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=162?163|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=114}} Spence has suggested that this trip to China was orchestrated as part of a British intelligence scheme to monitor the region\'s opium trade.{{sfnm|1a1=Spence|1y=2008|1pp=33?35|2a1=Churton|2y=2011|2p=115}} Crowley smoked opium throughout the journey, which took the family from [[Tengyueh]] through to [[Yongchang|Yungchang]], [[Dali, Yunnan|Tali]], [[Yunnanfu]], and then [[Hanoi]]. On the way he spent much time on spiritual and magical work, reciting the \"Bornless Ritual\", an invocation to his [[Holy Guardian Angel]], on a daily basis.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=221?232|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=164?169|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=153?154|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=115?118}}\n\nWhile Rose and Lilith returned to Europe, Crowley headed to Shanghai to meet old friend Elaine Simpson, who was fascinated by \'\'The Book of the Law\'\'; together they performed rituals in an attempt to contact Aiwass. Crowley then sailed to Japan and Canada, before continuing to New York City, where he unsuccessfully solicited support for a second expedition up Kangchenjunga.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=232?235|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=169?171|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=155?156|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=118?121}} Upon arrival in Britain, Crowley learned that his daughter Lilith had died of [[typhoid]] in [[Rangoon]], something he later blamed on Rose\'s increasing alcoholism. Under emotional distress, his health began to suffer, and he underwent a series of surgical operations.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=235?236, 239|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=171?172|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=159?160|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=121}} He began short-lived romances with actress Vera \"Lola\" Neville (n?e Snepp)[Kaczynski 2010 p 160] and author [[Ada Leverson]],{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=246|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=179|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=159?160, 173?174}} while Rose gave birth to Crowley\'s second daughter, Lola Zaza, in February 1907.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=236?237|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=172?173|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=159?160|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=125}}\n\n===The A?A? and the Holy Books of Thelema: 1907?09===\nWith his old mentor George Cecil Jones, Crowley continued performing [[The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage|the Abramelin rituals]] at the Ashdown Park Hotel in [[Coulsdon]], Surrey. Crowley claimed that in doing so he attained \'\'[[samadhi]]\'\', or union with Godhead, thereby marking a turning point in his life.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=239?240|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=173?174|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=157?160}} Making heavy use of [[hashish]] during these rituals, he wrote an essay on \"The Psychology of Hashish\" (1909) in which he championed the drug as an aid to mysticism.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=240?241|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=173, 175?176|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=179|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=128}} He also claimed to have been contacted once again by Aiwass in late October and November 1907, adding that Aiwass dictated two further texts to him, \"Liber VII\" and \"Liber Cordis Cincti Serpente\", both of which were later classified in the corpus of [[Holy Books of Thelema]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=251?252|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=181|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=172}} Crowley wrote down more Thelemic Holy Books during the last two months of the year, including \"Liber LXVI\", \"Liber Arcanorum\", \"Liber Porta Lucis, Sub Figura X\", \"Liber Tau\", \"Liber Trigrammaton\" and \"Liber DCCCXIII vel Ararita\", which he again claimed to have received from a preternatural source.{{sfn|Kaczynski|2010|pp=173?175}} Crowley claimed that in June 1909, when the manuscript of \'\'The Book of the Law\'\' was rediscovered at Boleskine, he developed the opinion that Thelema represented [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objective truth]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1pp=195?196|2a1=Kaczynski|2y=2010|2pp=189?190|3a1=Churton|3y=2011|3pp=147?148}}\n\nCrowley\'s inheritance was running out.{{sfn|Booth|2000|p=243}} Trying to earn money, he was hired by George Montagu Bennett, the [[Earl of Tankerville]], to help protect him from [[witchcraft]]; recognising Bennett\'s paranoia as being based in his cocaine addiction, Crowley took him on holiday to France and Morocco to recuperate.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=249?251|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=180|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=129?136}} In 1907, he also began taking in paying students, whom he instructed in occult and magical practice.{{Sfn|Booth|2000|p=252}} [[Victor Benjamin Neuburg|Victor Neuburg]], whom Crowley met in February 1907, became his sexual partner and closest disciple; in 1908 the pair toured northern Spain before heading to [[Tangier]], Morocco.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=255?262|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=184?187|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=179?180|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=129?130, 142?143}} The following year Neuburg stayed at Boleskine, where he and Crowley engaged in [[sadomasochism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=267?268|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=196?198|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=146?147}} Crowley continued to write prolifically, producing such works of poetry as \'\'Ambergris\'\', \'\'Clouds Without Water\'\', and \'\'Konx Om Pax\'\',{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=244?245|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=179, 181|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=176, 191?192|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=131}} as well as his first attempt at an autobiography, \'\'The World\'s Tragedy\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=246?247|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=182?183|3a1-Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=231|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=141}} Recognising the popularity of short horror stories, Crowley wrote his own, some of which were published,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=254?255|2a1=Churton|2y=2011|2p=172}} and he also published several articles in \'\'[[Vanity Fair (British magazine)|Vanity Fair]]\'\', a magazine edited by his friend [[Frank Harris]].{{sfn|Kaczynski|2010|p=178}} He also wrote \'\'[[777 and Other Qabalistic Writings of Aleister Crowley|Liber 777]]\'\', a book of magical and [[Hermetic Qabalah|Qabalistic]] [[Correspondence (theology)|correspondences]] that borrowed from Mathers and Bennett.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=247?248|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=175|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=183|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=128}}\n\n{{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=left|quote=Into my loneliness comes --
The sound of a flute in dim groves that haunt the uttermost hills.
Even from the brave river they reach to the edge of the wilderness.
And I behold Pan.|source=The opening lines of Liber VII (1907), the first of the Holy Books of Thelema to be revealed to Crowley after \'\'The Book of the Law\'\'.[[[#Cro83|Crowley 1983]]. p. 32.]}}\n\nIn November 1907, Crowley and Jones decided to found an occult order to act as a successor to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, being aided in doing so by Fuller. The result was the [[A?A?]]. The group\'s headquarters and temple were situated at 124 Victoria Street in central London, and their rites borrowed much from those of the Golden Dawn, but with an added Thelemic basis.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=263?264|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=172?173|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=146}} Its earliest members included solicitor Richard Noel Warren, artist [[Austin Osman Spare]], Horace Sheridan-Bickers, author George Raffalovich, Francis Henry Everard Joseph Feilding, engineer Herbert Edward Inman, Kenneth Ward, and [[Charles Stansfeld Jones]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1p=207|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=185?189}} In March 1909, Crowley began production of a biannual periodical titled \'\'[[The Equinox]]\'\'. He billed this periodical, which was to become the \"Official Organ\" of the A?A?, as \"The Review of Scientific Illuminism\".{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=265?267|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=192?193|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=183?184|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=144}}\n\nCrowley had become increasingly frustrated with Rose\'s alcoholism, and in November 1909 he divorced her on the grounds of his own adultery. Lola was entrusted to Rose\'s care; the couple remained friends and Rose continued to live at Boleskine. Her alcoholism worsened, and as a result she was institutionalised in September 1911.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=270?272|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=198?199|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=182?183, 194|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=148}}\n\n===Algeria and the Rites of Eleusis: 1909?11===\nIn November 1909, Crowley and Neuburg travelled to Algeria, touring the desert from [[Jendouba|El Arba]] to [[Sour El-Ghozlane|Aumale]], [[Bou Sa?da]], and then [[D?\'leh Addin]], with Crowley reciting the [[Quran]] on a daily basis. During the trip he invoked the thirty aethyrs of [[Enochian magic]], with Neuburg recording the results, later published in \'\'The Equinox\'\' as \'\'The Vision and the Voice\'\'. Following a mountaintop [[sex magic]] ritual, Crowley also performed an invocation to the demon [[Choronzon]] involving [[blood sacrifice]], considering the results to be a watershed in his magical career.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=274?282|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=199?204|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=193?203|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=149?152}} Returning to London in January 1910, Crowley found that Mathers was suing him for publishing Golden Dawn secrets in \'\'The Equinox\'\'; the court found in favour of Crowley. The case was widely reported on in the press, with Crowley gaining wider fame.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=282?283|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=205?206|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=205?208|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=160}} Crowley enjoyed this, and played up to the sensationalist stereotype of being a Satanist and advocate of human sacrifice, despite being neither.{{sfn|Booth|2000|pp=283?284}}\n\nThe publicity attracted new members to the A?A?, among them Frank Bennett, James Bayley, Herbert Close, and James Windram.{{Sfn|Kaczynski|2010|pp=210?211}} The Australian violinist [[Leila Waddell]] soon became Crowley\'s lover.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=285|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=206?207|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=211?213|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=160}} Deciding to expand his teachings to a wider audience, Crowley developed the Rites of Artemis, a public performance of magic and symbolism featuring A?A? members personifying various deities. It was first performed at the A?A? headquarters, with attendees given a fruit punch containing [[peyote]] to enhance their experience. Various members of the press attended, and reported largely positively on it. In October and November 1910, Crowley decided to stage something similar, the [[Rites of Eleusis]], at [[Caxton Hall]], [[Westminster]]; this time press reviews were mixed.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=286?289|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=209?212|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=217?228|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=161?162}} Crowley came under particular criticism from West de Wend Fenton, editor of \'\'[[The Looking Glass]]\'\' newspaper, who called him \"one of the most blasphemous and cold-blooded villains of modern times\".i{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=289|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=212|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=225|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=163}} Fenton\'s articles suggested that Crowley and Jones were involved in homosexual activity; Crowley did not mind, but Jones unsuccessfully sued for libel.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=291?292|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=213?215|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=229?234|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=164}} Fuller broke off his friendship and involvement with Crowley over the scandal,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=293?294|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=215|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=234|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=164}} and Crowley and Neuburg returned to Algeria for further magical workings.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=289?290|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=213?214|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=229?230|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=163?164}}\n\n\'\'The Equinox\'\' continued publishing, and various books of literature and poetry were also published under its imprint, like Crowley\'s \'\'Ambergris\'\', \'\'The Winged Beetle\'\', and \'\'The Scented Garden\'\', as well as Neuburg\'s \'\'The Triumph of Pan\'\' and [[Ethel Archer]]\'s \'\'The Whirlpool\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1pp=207?208|2a1=Kaczynski|2y=2010|2pp=213?215|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=158}} In 1911, Crowley and Waddell holidayed in [[Montigny-sur-Loing]], where he wrote prolifically, producing poems, short stories, plays, and 19 works on magic and mysticism, including the two final Holy Books of Thelema.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=297|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=235?237}} In Paris, he met [[Mary Desti]], who became his next [[Babalon|\"Scarlet Woman\"]], with the two undertaking magical workings in [[St. Moritz]]; Crowley believed that one of the [[Secret Chiefs]], Ab-ul-Diz, was speaking through her.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=297?301|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=217?222|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=239?248|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=165?166}} Based on Desti\'s statements when in trance, Crowley wrote the two-volume \'\'[[Magick (Book 4)|Book 4]]\'\' (1912?13) and at the time developed the spelling \"magick\" in reference to the [[Magic (paranormal)|paranormal phenomenon]] as a means of distinguishing it from the [[Magic (illusion)|stage magic]] of illusionists.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=301|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=222?224|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=247?250|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=166}}\n\n===Ordo Templi Orientis and the Paris Working: 1912?14===\n[[File:Aleister Crowley, Magus.png|thumb|right|upright|Crowley in ceremonial garb, 1912]]\nIn early 1912, Crowley published \'\'[[The Book of Lies (Crowley)|The Book of Lies]]\'\', a work of mysticism that biographer Lawrence Sutin described as \"his greatest success in merging his talents as poet, scholar, and magus\".{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=302|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=224?225|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=251}} The German occultist [[Theodor Reuss]] later accused him of publishing some of the secrets of his own occult order, the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (O.T.O.), within \'\'The Book\'\'. Crowley convinced Reuss that the similarities were coincidental, and the two became friends. Reuss appointed Crowley as head of the O.T.O\'s British branch, the Mysteria Mystica Maxima (MMM), and at a ceremony in [[Berlin]] Crowley adopted the magical name of [[Baphomet]] and was proclaimed \"X? Supreme Rex and Sovereign Grand Master General of Ireland, Iona, and all the Britons\".{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=302?305|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=225?226|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=251?255}} With Reuss\' permission, Crowley set about advertising the MMM and re-writing many O.T.O. rituals, which were then based largely on [[Freemasonry]]; his incorporation of Thelemite elements proved controversial in the group. Fascinated by the O.T.O\'s emphasis on [[sex magic]], Crowley devised a magical working based on anal sex and incorporated it into the syllabus for those O.T.O. members who had been initiated into the [[Ordo Templi Orientis#Initiation and teachings|eleventh degree]]. {{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=306|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=228|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=256}}\n\nIn March 1913 Crowley acted as producer for \'\'The Ragged Ragtime Girls\'\', a group of female violinists led by Waddell, as they performed at London\'s [[Old Tivoli]] theatre. They subsequently performed in Moscow for six weeks, where Crowley had a sadomasochistic relationship with the Hungarian Anny Ringler.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=308?309|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=232?234|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=261?265}} In Moscow, Crowley continued to write plays and poetry, including \"[[Hymn to Pan]]\", and the [[Gnostic Mass]], a Thelemic ritual that became a key part of O.T.O. liturgy.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=309?310|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=234?235|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=264}} Churton suggested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city.{{sfn|Churton|2011|pp=178?182}} In January 1914 Crowley and Neuburg settled in to an apartment in Paris, where the former was involved in the controversy surrounding [[Jacob Epstein]]\'s new monument to [[Oscar Wilde]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=307|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=218|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=266?267}} Together Crowley and Neuburg performed the six-week \"Paris Working\", a period of intense ritual involving strong drug use in which they invoked the gods [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] and [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]. As part of the ritual, the couple performed acts of sex magic together, at times being joined by journalist [[Walter Duranty]]. Inspired by the results of the Working, Crowley authored \'\'Liber Agap?\'\', a treatise on sex magic.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=313?316|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=235?240|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=269?274}} Following the Paris Working, Neuburg began to distance himself from Crowley, resulting in an argument in which Crowley [[curse]]d him.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=317?319|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=240?241|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=275?276}}\n\n===United States: 1914?19===\nBy 1914 Crowley was living a hand-to-mouth existence, relying largely on donations from A?A? members and dues payments made to O.T.O.{{sfn|Booth|2000|p=321}} In May he transferred ownership of Boleskine House to the MMM for financial reasons,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=321?322|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=240|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=277|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=186}} and in July he went mountaineering in the Swiss Alps. During this time the [[First World War]] broke out.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=322|2a1=Kaczynski|2y=2010|2p=277}}\nAfter recuperating from a bout of [[phlebitis]], Crowley set sail for the United States aboard the \'\'[[RMS Lusitania]]\'\' in October 1914.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=323|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=241|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=278|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=187?189}} Arriving in New York City, he moved into a hotel and began earning money writing for the American edition of \'\'[[Vanity Fair (US magazine 1913?36)|Vanity Fair]]\'\' and undertaking freelance work for the famed astrologer [[Evangeline Adams]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=323?234|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=281?282, 294}} In the city, he continued experimenting with sex magic, through the use of masturbation, female prostitutes, and male clients of a Turkish bathhouse; all of these encounters were documented in his diaries.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=325|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=243?244}}\n\n[[File:Aleister Crowley\'s May Morn.jpg|thumb|left|upright|\'\'May Morn\'\', one of Crowley\'s paintings from his time in the US He explained it thus: \"The painting represents the dawning of the day following a witches\' celebration as described in \'\'[[Faust]]\'\'. The witch is hanged, as she deserves, and the satyr looks out from behind a tree.\"{{sfn|Kaczynski|2010|p=341}}]]\nProfessing to be of Irish ancestry and a supporter of [[Irish nationalism|Irish independence]] from Great Britain, Crowley began to espouse support for Germany in their war against Britain. He became involved in New York\'s pro-German movement, and in January 1915 German spy [[George Sylvester Viereck]] employed him as a writer for his propagandist paper, \'\'[[The Fatherland]]\'\', which was dedicated to keeping the US neutral in the conflict.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=326?330|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=245?247|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=283?284}} In later years, detractors denounced Crowley as a traitor to Britain for this action.{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1p=247|3a1=Churton|3y=2011|3p=186}} In reality, Crowley was a double agent, working for the British intelligence services to infiltrate and undermine Germany\'s operation in New York. Many of his articles in \'\'The Fatherland\'\' were hyperbolic, for instance comparing [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] to Jesus Christ; in July 1915 he orchestrated a publicity stunt ? reported on by \'\'[[The New York Times]]\'\' ? in which he declared independence for Ireland in front of the [[Statue of Liberty]]; the real intention was to make the German lobby appear ridiculous in the eyes of the American public.{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1pp=247?248|3a1=Spence|3y=2008|3pp=67?76|4a1=Kaczynski|4y=2010|4pp=284?287, 292?292|5a1=Churton|5y=2011|5pp=190?193}} It has been argued that he encouraged the German Navy to destroy the \'\'Lusitania\'\', informing them that it would ensure the US stayed out of the war, while in reality hoping that it would bring the US into the war on Britain\'s side.{{sfnm|1a1=Spence|1y=2008|1pp=82?89|2a1=Churton|2y=2011|2pp=195?197}}\n\nCrowley entered into a relationship with [[Jeanne Robert Foster]], with whom he toured the West Coast. In [[Vancouver]], headquarters of the North American O.T.O., he met with [[Charles Stansfeld Jones]] and [[Wilfred Talbot Smith]] to discuss the propagation of Thelema on the continent. In Detroit he experimented with [[anhalonium]] at [[Parke-Davis]], then visited Seattle, San Francisco, [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]], Los Angeles, San Diego, [[Tijuana]], and the [[Grand Canyon]], before returning to New York.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=330?333|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=251?255|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=288?291, 295?297|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=198?203}} There he befriended [[Ananda Coomaraswamy]] and his wife Alice Richardson; Crowley and Richardson performed sex magic in April 1916, following which she became pregnant and then miscarried.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=333|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=255?257|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=298?301}} Later that year he took a \"magical retirement\" to a cabin by [[Newfound Lake|Lake Pasquaney]] owned by Evangeline Adams. There, he made heavy use of drugs and undertook a ritual after which he proclaimed himself \"Master Therion\". He also wrote several short stories based on [[James George Frazer|J.G. Frazer]]\'s \'\'[[The Golden Bough]]\'\' and a work of literary criticism, \'\'The Gospel According to Bernard Shaw\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=333?335|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=257?261|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=304?209}}\n\nIn December he moved to [[New Orleans]], his favourite US city, before spending February 1917 with evangelical Christian relatives in [[Titusville, Florida]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=336?338|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=261?262|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=309?313}} Returning to New York, he moved in with artist and A?A? member [[Leon Engers Kennedy]], in May learning of his mother\'s death.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=338|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=263|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=313?316}} After the collapse of \'\'The Fatherland\'\', Crowley continued his association with Viereck, who appointed him contributing editor of arts journal \'\'The International\'\'. Crowley used it to promote Thelema, but it soon ceased publication.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=339?340|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=264?266|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=320}} He then moved to the studio apartment of Roddie Minor, who became his partner and Scarlet Woman. Through their rituals, Crowley believed that they were contacted by a preternatural entity named Alamantrah. The relationship soon ended.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=342?344|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=264?267|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=320?330}}\n\nIn 1918, Crowley went on a magical retreat in the wilderness of [[Esopus Creek|Esopus Island]] on the [[Hudson River]]. Here, he began a translation of the \'\'[[Tao Te Ching]]\'\', painted Thelemic slogans on the riverside cliffs, and – he later claimed – experienced what he interpreted as [[reincarnation|past life memories]] of being [[Ge Xuan]], [[Pope Alexander VI]], [[Alessandro Cagliostro]], and [[Eliphas Levi]], also painting Thelemic slogans on the riverside cliffs.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=344?345|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=267?272|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=330?331}} Back in New York, he moved to [[Greenwich Village]], where he took [[Leah Hirsig]] as his lover and next Scarlet Woman.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=346?350|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=274?276|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=338?343}} He took up painting as a hobby, exhibiting his work at the Greenwich Village Liberal Club and attracting the attention of the \'\'[[New York Evening World]]\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=344?345|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=274?276|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=340?341}} With the financial assistance of sympathetic Freemasons, Crowley revived \'\'The Equinox\'\' with the first issue of volume III, known as \"The Blue Equinox\".{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=351|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=273|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=342?344}} He spent mid-1919 on a climbing holiday in [[Montauk, New York|Montauk]] before returning to London in December.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=351?352|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=277|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=347}}\n\n===Abbey of Thelema: 1920?23===\n\nNow destitute and back in London, Crowley came under attack from the tabloid \'\'[[John Bull (magazine)|John Bull]]\'\', which labelled him traitorous \"scum\" for his work with the German war effort; several friends aware of his intelligence work urged him to sue, but he decided not to.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=355?356|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=278|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=356|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=246}} When he was suffering from asthma, a doctor prescribed him heroin, to which he soon became addicted.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=357|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=277|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=355}} In January 1920, he moved to Paris, renting a house in [[Fontainebleau]] with [[Leah Hirsig]]; they were soon joined in a \'\'m?nage ? trois\'\' by Ninette Shumway, and also by Leah\'s newborn daughter Anne \"Poup?e\" Leah.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=356?360|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=278?279|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=356?358|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=246}} Crowley had ideas of forming a community of Thelemites, which he called the [[Abbey of Thelema]] after the Abbaye de Th?l?me in [[Fran?ois Rabelais]]\'s satire \'\'[[Gargantua and Pantagruel]]\'\'. After consulting the \'\'[[I Ching]]\'\', he chose [[Cefal?]] (on Sicily, [[Italy]]) as a location, and after arriving there, began renting the old Villa Santa Barbara as his Abbey on 2 April.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=360?363|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=279?280|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=358?359|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=246?248}}\n\n[[File:Thelema Abbey 2.jpg|thumb|right|The dilapidated [[Abbey of Thelema]] in 2004]]\nMoving to the commune with Hirsig, Shumway, and their children Hansi, Howard, and Poup?e, Crowley described the scenario as \"perfectly happy ... my idea of heaven.\"{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=365}} They wore robes, and performed rituals to the sun god [[Ra]] at set times during the day, also occasionally performing the Gnostic Mass; the rest of the day they were left to follow their own interests.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=368|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=286|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=361}} Undertaking widespread correspondences, Crowley continued to paint, wrote a commentary on \'\'The Book of the Law\'\', and revised the third part of \'\'Book 4\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=365?366|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=280?281|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=365, 372}} He offered a libertine education for the children, allowing them to play all day and witness acts of sex magic.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=367|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=359}} He occasionally travelled to [[Palermo]] to visit [[rent boys]] and buy supplies, including drugs; his heroin addiction came to dominate his life, and cocaine began to erode his nasal cavity.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=366, 369?370|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=281?282|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=361?362|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=251?252}} There was no cleaning rota, and wild dogs and cats wandered throughout the building, which soon became unsanitary.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=368|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=286?287}} Poup?e died in October 1920, and Ninette gave birth to a daughter, Astarte Lulu Panthea, soon afterwards.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=372?373|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=285|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=365?366|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=252}}\n\nNew followers continued to arrive at the Abbey to be taught by Crowley. Among them was film star [[Jane Wolfe]], who arrived in July 1920, where she was initiated into the A?A? and became Crowley\'s secretary.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=371?372|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=286?287|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=362?365, 371?372}} Another was Cecil Frederick Russell, who often argued with Crowley, disliking the same-sex sexual magic that he was required to perform, and left after a year.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=373?374|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=287?288|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=366?368}} More conducive was the Australian Thelemite Frank Bennett, who also spent several months at the Abbey.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=376?378|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=293?294|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=373?376|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=255?256}} In February 1922, Crowley returned to Paris for a retreat in an unsuccessful attempt to kick his heroin addiction.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=379|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=290?291|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=377?378|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=258?259}} He then went to London in search of money, where he published articles in \'\'[[The English Review]]\'\' criticising the [[Dangerous Drugs Act 1920]] and wrote a novel, \'\'[[Diary of a Drug Fiend]]\'\', completed in July. On publication, it received mixed reviews; he was lambasted by the \'\'[[Sunday Express]]\'\', which called for its burning and used its influence to prevent further reprints.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=380?385|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=298?301|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=379?380, 384?387|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=259}}\n\nSubsequently, a young Thelemite named Raoul Loveday moved to the Abbey with his wife Betty May; while Loveday was devoted to Crowley, May detested him and life at the commune. She later claimed that Loveday was made to drink the blood of a sacrificed cat, and that they were required to cut themselves with razors every time they used the pronoun \"I\". Raoul drank from a local polluted stream, soon developing a liver infection resulting in his death in February 1923. Returning to London, May told her story to the press.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=385?394|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=301?306|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=381?384, 397?392|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=259?261}} \'\'John Bull\'\' proclaimed Crowley \"the wickedest man in the world\" and \"a man we\'d like to hang\", and although Crowley deemed many of their accusations against him to be slanderous, he was unable to afford the legal fees to sue them. As a result, \'\'John Bull\'\' continued its attack, with its stories being repeated in newspapers throughout Europe and in North America.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=394?395|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=307?308|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=392?394|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=261?262}} The [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] government of [[Benito Mussolini]] learned of Crowley\'s activities and in April 1923 he was given a deportation notice forcing him to leave Italy; without him, the Abbey closed.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=395?396|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=308|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=396?397|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=263?264}}\n\n==Later life==\n\n===Tunisia, Paris, and London: 1923?29===\n\nCrowley and Hirsig went to [[Tunis]], where, dogged by continuing poor health, he unsuccessfully tried again to give up heroin,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=399?401|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=310|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=397|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=270}} and began writing what he termed his \"[[hagiography|autohagiography]]\", \'\'[[The Confessions of Aleister Crowley]]\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=403|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=310?311|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=398}} They were joined in Tunis by the Thelemite [[Norman Mudd]], who became Crowley\'s public relations consultant.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=403?406|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=313?316|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=399?403|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=270?273}} Employing a local boy, Mohammad ben Brahim, as his servant, Crowley went with him on a retreat to [[Nefta]], where they performed sex magic together.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=405?406|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=315?316|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=403?405|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=273?274}} In January 1924, Crowley travelled to [[Nice]], France, where he met with [[Frank Harris]], underwent a series of nasal operations,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=407?409|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=316?318|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=405|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=274}} and visited the [[Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man]], and had a positive opinion of its founder, [[George Gurdjieff]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1p=317|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=406?407|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=281?282}} Destitute, he took on a wealthy student, Alexander Zu Zolar,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=410?412|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=319|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=287}} before taking on another American follower, Dorothy Olsen. Crowley took Olsen back to Tunisia for a magical retreat in Nefta, where he also wrote \'\'To Man\'\' (1924), a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing Thelema to humanity.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=412?417|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=319?320|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=413?415|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=287?288}} After spending the winter in Paris, in early 1925 Crowley and Olsen returned to Tunis, where he wrote \'\'The Heart of the Master\'\' (1938) as an account of a vision he claimed to have experienced while in trance.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=418|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=323|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=417|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=323}} In March Olsen became pregnant, and Hirsig was called to take care of her; she miscarried, following which Crowley took Olsen back to France. Hirsig later distanced herself from Crowley, who then denounced her.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=419?420|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=322|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=417?418|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=289}}\n\nAccording to Crowley, Reuss had named him head of the O.T.O. upon his death, but this was challenged by a leader of the German O.T.O., [[Heinrich Tr?nker]]. Tr?nker called the Hohenleuben Conference in [[Thuringia]], Germany, which Crowley attended. There, prominent members like [[Karl Germer]] and Martha K?ntzel championed Crowley\'s leadership, but other key figures like [[Albin Grau]], Oskar Hopfer, and Henri Birven backed Tr?nker by opposing it, resulting in a split in the O.T.O.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=423?424|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=324?328|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=418?419|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=291?292, 332}} Moving to Paris, where he broke with Olsen in 1926, Crowley went through a large number of lovers over the following years, with whom he experimented in sex magic.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=425?326|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=332?334|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=426?427, 430?433}} Throughout, he was dogged by poor health, largely caused by his heroin and cocaine addictions.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=429?430}} In 1928, Crowley was introduced to young Englishman [[Israel Regardie]], who embraced Thelema and became Crowley\'s secretary for the next three years.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=426|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=336?337|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=432?433|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=309}} That year, Crowley also met [[Gerald Yorke]], who began organising Crowley\'s finances but never became a Thelemite.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=427?428|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=335?335|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=427?429|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=299}} He also befriended [[Thomas Driberg]]; Driberg did not accept Thelema either.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=428?429|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=331?332|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=423|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=296?298|5a1=Pasi|5y=2014|5pp=72?76}} It was here that Crowley also published one of his most significant works, \'\'[[Magick in Theory and Practice]]\'\', which received little attention at the time.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=431|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=339|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=428?429, 426|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=308?309}}\n\nIn December 1929 Crowley met the Nicaraguan Maria Teresa Sanchez.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=430?431|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=340?341|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=433?434|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=310}} Crowley was deported from France by the authorities, who disliked his reputation and feared that he was a German agent.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=432?433|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=341|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=438|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=306, 312?314}} So that she could join him in Britain, Crowley married Sanchez in August 1929.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=434?435|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=342, 345|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=440|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=318}} Now based in London, Mandrake Press agreed to publish his autobiography in a limited edition six-volume set, also publishing his novel \'\'Moonchild\'\' and book of short stories \'\'The Stratagem\'\'. Mandrake went into liquidation in November 1930, before the entirety of Crowley\'s \'\'Confessions\'\' could be published.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=436?437|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=344|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=440?443|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=317}} Mandrake\'s owner [[P.R. Stephenson]] meanwhile wrote \'\'The Legend of Aleister Crowley\'\', an analysis of the media coverage surrounding him.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=438?439|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=345|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=442, 447|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=321}}\n\n===Berlin and London: 1930?38===\nIn April 1930, Crowley moved to [[Berlin]], where he took Hanni Jaegar as his magical partner; the relationship was troubled.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=439|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=351?354|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=448|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=333, 335}} In September he went to [[Lisbon]] in Portugal to meet the poet [[Fernando Pessoa]]. There, he decided to fake his own death, doing so with Pessoa\'s help at the [[Boca do Inferno]] rock formation.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=440|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=354?355|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=449?452|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=336?337|5a1=Pasi|5y=2014|5pp=95?116}} He then returned to Berlin, where he reappeared three weeks later at the opening of his art exhibition at the Gallery Neumann-Nierendorf. Crowley\'s paintings fitted with the fashion for [[German Expressionism]]; few of them sold, but the press reports were largely favourable.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=441?442|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=360?361|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=455?457|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=337, 346?349}} In August 1931, he took Bertha Busch as his new lover; they had a violent relationship, and often physically assaulted one another.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=445|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=360|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=450|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=345}} He continued to have affairs with both men and women while in the city,{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1pp=355?357}} and met with famous people like [[Aldous Huxley]] and [[Alfred Adler]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1pp=355|2a1=Kaczynski|2y=2010|2pp=448?449|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=335?336, 338?339}} After befriending him, in January 1932 he took the communist [[Gerald Hamilton]] as a lodger, through whom he was introduced to many figures within the Berlin far left; it is possible that he was operating as a spy for British intelligence at this time, monitoring the communist movement.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=445?446|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=361|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=457|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=349|5a1=Pasi|5y=2014|5pp=83?88}}\n\n{{Quote box|width=246px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=left|quote=I have been over forty years engaged in the administration of the law in one capacity or another. I thought that I knew of every conceivable form of wickedness. I thought that everything which was vicious and bad had been produced at one time or another before me. I have learnt in this case that we can always learn something more if we live long enough. I have never heard such dreadful, horrible, blasphemous and abominable stuff as that which has been produced by the man (Crowley) who describes himself to you as the greatest living poet.|source=Justice Swift, in Crowley\'s libel case.[{{cite news\n |title=Confessed Genius Loses Weird Suit\n |author=The United Press\n |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=d_kaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=eksEAAAAIBAJ&pg=2179,5203407\n |newspaper=[[Pittsburgh Press|The Pittsburgh Press]]\n |date=13 April 1934\n |accessdate=18 March 2013}}\n]{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=372}}}}\n\nCrowley left Busch and returned to London,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=446|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=355?356}} where he took Pearl Brooksmith as his new Scarlet Woman.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=453|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=366?367|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=470?471|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=360?361}} Undergoing further nasal surgery, it was here in 1932 that he was invited to be guest of honour at [[Foyles]]\' Literary Luncheon, also being invited by [[Harry Price]] to speak at the [[National Laboratory of Psychical Research]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1pp=363?364|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=463?465|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=357}} In need of money, he launched a series of court cases against people whom he believed had libelled him, some of which proved successful. He gained much publicity for his lawsuit against [[Constable & Robinson|Constable and Co]] for publishing [[Nina Hamnett]]\'s \'\'Laughing Torso\'\' (1932) ? a book he thought libelled him ? but lost the case.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=447?453|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=367?373|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=466, 468, 472?481|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=358?359, 361?362}} The court case added to Crowley\'s financial problems, and in February 1935 he was declared bankrupt. During the hearing, it was revealed that Crowley had been spending three times his income for several years.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=454?456|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=374|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=483?484|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=363}}\n\nCrowley developed a platonic friendship with Deidre Patricia O\'Doherty; she offered to bear his child, who was born in May 1937. Named Randall Gair, Crowley nicknamed him Aleister Atat?rk.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=458?460|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=373?374|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=481, 489, 496|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=362, 370}} Crowley continued to socialise with friends, holding curry parties in which he cooked particularly spicy food for them.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=461|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=489?490}} In 1936, he published his first book in six years, \'\'The Equinox of the Gods\'\', which contained a facsimile of \'\'The Book of the Law\'\' and was considered to be volume III, number 3, of \'\'The Equinox\'\' periodical. The work sold well, resulting in a second print run.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=467|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=380?381|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=490?491, 493, 497?499}} In 1937 he gave a series of public lectures on yoga in Soho.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=467|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=495?496|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=369}} Crowley was now living largely off contributions supplied by the O.T.O.\'s [[Agape Lodge]] in California, led by rocket scientist [[Jack Parsons (rocket propulsion engineer)|John Whiteside \"Jack\" Parsons]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=466|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=375}} Crowley was intrigued by the rise of Nazism in Germany, and influenced by his friend Martha K?ntzel believed that [[Adolf Hitler]] might convert to Thelema; when the Nazis abolished the German O.T.O. and imprisoned Germer, who fled to the US, Crowley then lambasted Hitler as a [[black magic]]ian.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=468?469|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=375?380|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=384?385|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=365?366}}\n\n===Second World War and death: 1939?47===\n[[File:Grady Louis McMurtry 1941.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Crowley specified that Grady McMurtry succeed his chosen successor as Head of O.T.O., Karl Germer.]]\nWhen the [[Second World War]] broke out, Crowley wrote to the [[Naval Intelligence Division]] offering his services, but they declined. He associated with a variety of figures in Britain\'s intelligence community at the time, including [[Dennis Wheatley]], [[Roald Dahl]], [[Ian Fleming]], and [[Maxwell Knight]],{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=471?472|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=506?507|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=376?378}} and claimed to have been behind the \"[[V for Victory]]\" sign first used by the [[BBC]]; this has never been proven.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaczynski|1y=2010|1p=511?512|2a1=Churton|2y=2011|2pp=380?383, 392?396}}\nIn 1940, his asthma worsened, and with his German-produced medication unavailable, he returned to using heroin, once again becoming addicted.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=476|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=508}} As [[the Blitz]] hit London, Crowley relocated to [[Torquay]], where he was briefly hospitalised with asthma, and entertained himself with visits to the local chess club.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaczynski|1y=2010|1pp=509?510|2a1=Churton|2y=2011|2p=380}} Tiring of Torquay, he returned to London, where he was visited by American Thelemite [[Grady McMurtry]], to whom Crowley awarded the title of \"Hymenaeus Alpha\".{{sfnm|1a1=Kaczynski|1y=2010|1p=527|2a1=Churton|2y=2011|2p=403}} He stipulated that though Germer would be his immediate successor, McMurty should succeed Germer as head of the O.T.O. after the latter\'s death.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=478?479|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=512, 531?532, 547|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=408?409}} With O.T.O. initiate [[Lady Frieda Harris]], Crowley developed plans to produce a [[tarot card]] set, designed by him and painted by Harris. Accompanying this was a book, published in a limited edition as \'\'[[The Book of Thoth (Crowley)|The Book of Thoth]]\'\' by [[Chiswick Press]] in 1944.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=473?474|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=501, 503?504, 510, 522, 530?521|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=370, 406}} To aid the war effort, he wrote a proclamation on the rights of humanity, \'\'Liber Oz\'\', and a poem for the liberation of France, \'\'Le Gauloise\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaczynski|1y=2010|1pp=517?518, 522|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=397}} Crowley\'s final publication during his lifetime was a book of poetry, \'\'Olla: An Anthology of Sixty Years of Song\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=474?475|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=519?520, 542|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=410}} Another of his projects, \'\'Aleister Explains Everything\'\', was posthumously published as \'\'[[Magick Without Tears]]\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=474|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=528|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=404}}\n\nIn April 1944 Crowley briefly moved to [[Aston Clinton]] in Buckinghamshire,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=475|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=530|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=403?404}} where he was visited by the poet [[Nancy Cunard]],{{sfnm|1a1=Churton|1y=2011|1pp=407?408}} before relocating to [[Hastings]] in Sussex, where he took up residence at the Netherwood boarding house.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=475|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=532?533}} He took a young man named [[Kenneth Grant]] as his secretary, paying him in magical teaching rather than wages.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaczynski|1y=2010|1p=533?535|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=409, 411}} He was also introduced to [[John Symonds]], whom he appointed to be his literary executor; Symonds thought little of Crowley, later publishing negative biographies of him.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=481|2a1=Kaczynski|2y=2010|2p=540?541|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=413?414}} Corresponding with the illusionist [[Arnold Crowther]], it was through him that Crowley was introduced to [[Gerald Gardner (Wiccan)|Gerald Gardner]], the future founder of [[Gardnerian Wicca]]. They became friends, with Crowley authorising Gardner to revive Britain\'s ailing O.T.O.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaczynski|1y=2010|1p=542?544}} Another visitor was [[Eliza Marian Butler]], who interviewed Crowley for her book \'\'The Myth of the Magus\'\'.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaczynski|1y=2010|1p=536?537|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=412}} Other friends and family also spent time with him, among them Doherty and Crowley\'s son Aleister Atat?rk.{{sfnm|1a1=Kaczynski|1y=2010|1p=544?555|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=416}} On 1 December 1947, Crowley died at Netherwood of chronic bronchitis aggravated by pleurisy and myocardial degeneration, aged 72.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=483|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2pp=417?419|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3p=548|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4pp=417?418}} His funeral was held at a [[Brighton]] crematorium on 5 December; about a dozen people attended, and [[Louis Wilkinson]] read excerpts from the Gnostic Mass, \'\'The Book of the Law\'\', and \"Hymn to Pan\". The funeral generated press controversy, and was labelled a [[Black Mass]] by the tabloids. Crowley\'s ashes were sent to Germer in the US, who buried them in his garden in [[Hampton, New Jersey]].{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1pp=484?485|3a1=Kaczynski|3y=2010|3pp=549?551|4a1=Churton|4y=2011|4p=418}}\n\n==Beliefs and thought==\n\n[[File:Crowley unicursal hexagram.svg|upright|thumb|Aleister Crowley\'s rendition of the [[Unicursal Hexagram]], the symbol of [[Thelema]]]]\n\n{{main|Thelema}}\n\nCrowley\'s thought was not always cohesive, and was influenced by a variety of sources, ranging from eastern religious movements and practices like Hindu yoga and Buddhism, [[scientific naturalism]], and various currents within Western esotericism, among them ceremonial magic, alchemy, astrology, Rosicrucianism, Kabbalah, and the Tarot.{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p=23}} Philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley\'s thought was rooted in [[Romanticism]] and the [[Decadent movement]],{{sfn|Moore|2009|pp=19?40}} an assessment shared by historian Alex Owen, who noted that Crowley adhered to the \"modus operandi\" of the decadent movement throughout his life.{{sfn|Owen|2012|p=37}}\n\nCrowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanity\'s entry to the Aeon of Horus, a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny. He believed that this Aeon follows on from the Aeon of Osiris, in which paternalistic religions like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism dominated the world, and that this in turn had followed the Aeon of Isis, which had been maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship.{{sfn|DuQuette|2003|pp=14?21}} Thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their own True Will that they should discover and pursue, and that this exists in harmony with the Cosmic Will that pervades the universe.{{sfn|DuQuette|2003|p=12}} The moral code of \"Do What Thou Wilt\" is believed by Thelemites to be the faith\'s ethical law, although academic Marco Pasi noted that this was not [[anarchism|anarchistic]] or [[libertarianism|libertarian]] in structure, as Crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism.{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p=49}}\n\nCrowley believed in the objective existence of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], which he chose to spell \"Magick\". In his book \'\'Magick in Theory and Practice\'\', Crowley defined Magick as \"the Science and Art of causing change to occur in conformity with Will\".{{sfn|DuQuette|2003|p=11}} He also told his disciple Karl Germer that \"Magick is getting into communication with individuals who exist on a higher plane than ours. Mysticism is the raising of oneself to their level.\"{{Sfn|Churton|2011|p=417}} Crowley saw Magick as a third way between religion and science, giving \'\'The Equinox\'\' the subtitle of \"The Method of Science; the Aim of Religion\".{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p=4}}\n\nBoth during his life and after it, Crowley has been widely described as a [[Satanism|Satanist]], usually by detractors. Crowley stated he did not consider himself a Satanist, nor did he worship [[Satan]], as he did not accept the Christian world view in which Satan was believed to exist.{{sfnm|1a1=DuQuette|1y=2003|1pp=2?3|2a1=Dyrendal|2y=2012|2pp=369?370}} He was also accused of advocating [[human sacrifice]], largely because of a passage in \'\'Book 4\'\' in which he stated that \"A male child of perfect innocence and high intelligence is the most satisfactory victim\". This was intended as a veiled reference to male [[masturbation]].{{sfn|DuQuette|2003|pp=5?7}}\n\n==Personal life==\nCrowley biographer [[Martin Booth]] asserted that Crowley was \"self-confident, brash, eccentric, egotistic, highly intelligent, arrogant, witty, wealthy, and, when it suited him, cruel\".{{sfn|Booth|2000|p=125}} Similarly, Richard Spence noted that Crowley was \"capable of immense physical and emotional cruelty\".{{sfn|Spence|2008|p=10}} Biographer [[Lawrence Sutin]] noted that Crowley exhibited \"courage, skill, dauntless energy, and remarkable focus of will\" while at the same time showing a \"blind arrogance, petty fits of bile, [and] contempt for the abilities of his fellow men\".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=148}} The Thelemite [[Lon Milo DuQuette]] noted that Crowley \"was by no means perfect\" and \"often alienated those who loved him dearest.\"{{sfn|DuQuette|2003|p=9}}\n\nCrowley enjoyed being outrageous and flouting conventional morality,{{sfn|Moore|2009|p=33}} with [[John Symonds]] noting that he \"was in revolt against the moral and religious values of his time\".{{sfn|Symonds|1997|p=vii}} Crowley\'s political thought was subjected to an in-depth study by academic Marco Pasi, who noted that for Crowley, socio-political concerns were subordinate to metaphysical and spiritual ones.{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p=23}} Pasi argued that it was difficult to classify Crowley as being either on the political [[Left-wing politics|left]] or [[Right-wing politics|right]], but he was perhaps best categorised as a \"conservative revolutionary\" despite not being affiliated with the German-based [[conservative revolutionary movement]].{{sfn|Pasi|2014|pp=49?50}} Pasi noted that Crowley sympathised with extreme ideologies like [[Nazism]] and [[Marxism-Leninism]], in that they wished to violently overturn society, and hoped that both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union might adopt Thelema.{{sfn|Pasi|2014|pp=52?53}} Crowley described democracy as an \"imbecile and nauseating cult of weakness\",{{sfn|Morgan|2011|p=166}} and commented that \'\'The Book of the Law\'\' proclaimed that \"there is the master and there is the slave; the noble and the serf; the \'lone wolf\' and the herd\".{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p=49}} In this attitude he was influenced by the work of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] and by [[Social Darwinism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Sutin|1y=2000|1p=129|2a1=Churton|2y=2011|2p=401|3a1=Pasi|3y=2014|3p=48}} Crowley also saw himself as an aristocrat, describing himself as Laird Boleskine; he had contempt for most of the British aristocracy,{{sfn|Booth|2000|p=109}} and once described his ideology as \"aristocratic communism\".{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p=50}}\n\nCrowley was bisexual, and exhibited a sexual preference for women.{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=67|2a1=Spence|2y=2008|2p=19}} In particular he had an attraction toward \"exotic women\",{{sfn|Booth|2000|p=130}} and claimed to have fallen in love on multiple occasions; Kaczynski stated that \"when he loved, he did so with his whole being, but the passion was typically short-lived\".{{sfn|Kaczynski|2010|p=91}} Even in later life, he was able to attract young bohemian women to be his lovers, largely due to his charisma.{{sfn|Booth|2000|p=350}} During same-sex [[anal sex|anal intercourse]], he usually played the passive role,{{sfnm|1a1=Booth|1y=2000|1p=63|2a1=Sutin|2y=2000|2p=159}} which Booth believed \"appealed to his masochistic side\".{{sfn|Booth|2000|p=63}} Crowley argued that gay and bisexual people should not suppress their sexual orientation, commenting that a person \"must not be ashamed or afraid of being homosexual if he happens to be so at heart; he must not attempt to violate his own true nature because of public opinion, or medieval morality, or religious prejudice which would wish he were otherwise.\"{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=128}} On other issues he adopted a more conservative attitude; he opposed abortion on moral grounds, believing that no woman following her True Will would ever desire one.{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=145}}\n\n===Views on race and gender===\nBiographer Lawrence Sutin stated that \"blatant bigotry is a persistent minor element in Crowley\'s writings\".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|pp=223?224}} Sutin thought Crowley \"a spoiled scion of a wealthy Victorian family who embodied many of the worst [[John Bull]] racial and social prejudices of his upper-class contemporaries\",{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=2}} noting that he \"embodied the contradiction that writhed within many Western intellectuals of the time: deeply held racist viewpoints courtesy of their culture, coupled with a fascination with people of colour\".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=336}} Crowley insulted his close Jewish friend Victor Neuburg using [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] slurs, and he had mixed opinions about Jews as a group. Although he praised their \"sublime\" poetry and claimed that the \"Jewish race\" contained \"imagination, romance, loyalty, probity and humanity in an exceptional degree\", he also thought that centuries of persecution had led some Jews to exhibit \"avarice, servility, falseness, cunning and the rest\".{{sfn|Booth|2000|pp=268?269}} He was also known to praise various ethnic and cultural groups, for instance he claimed that the Chinese people exhibited a \"spiritual superiority\" to the English,{{sfn|Booth|2000|p=137}} and praised Muslims for exhibiting \"manliness, straightforwardness, subtlety, and self-respect\".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=180}}\n\nCrowley also exhibited a \"general misogyny\" that Booth believed arose from his bad relationship with his mother.{{sfn|Booth|2000|p=61}} Sutin noted that Crowley \"largely accepted the notion, implicitly embodied in Victorian sexology, of women as secondary social beings in terms of intellect and sensibility\".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=28}} Crowley described women as \"moral inferiors\" who had to be treated with \"firmness, kindness and justice\".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=114}}\n\n==Legacy and influence==\n\nCrowley has remained an influential figure, both amongst occultists and in popular culture, particularly that of Britain, but also of other parts of the world. In 2002, a BBC poll placed Crowley seventy-third in a list of the [[100 Greatest Britons]].{{sfn|Churton|2011|p=3}} [[Richard Cavendish (occult writer)|Richard Cavendish]] has written of him that \"In native talent, penetrating intelligence and determination, Aleister Crowley was the best-equipped magician to emerge since the seventeenth century.\" {{sfnm|1a1=Cavendish|1y=1977|1pp=167}} [[Wouter Hanegraaff]] asserted that Crowley was an extreme representation of \"the dark side of the occult\",{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2012|p=ix}} while philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley stood out as a \"Modern Master\" when compared with other prominent occult figures like [[George Gurdjieff]], [[P.D. Ouspensky]], [[Rudolf Steiner]], or [[Helena Blavatsky]],{{sfn|Moore|2009|p=5}} also describing him as a \"living embodiment\" of [[Oswald Spengler]]\'s \"[[The Decline of the West|Faustian Man]]\".{{sfn|Moore|2009|p=40}}\nBiographer [[Tobias Churton]] considered Crowley \"a pioneer of consciousness research\",{{sfn|Churton|2011|p=88}} and Sutin thought that he had made \"distinctly original contributions\" to the study of yoga in the West.{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=93}}\n\nThelema continued to develop and spread following Crowley\'s death. In 1969, the O.T.O. was reactivated in California under the leadership of Grady Louis McMurtry;{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p=7}} in 1985 its right to the title was unsuccessfully challenged in court by a rival group, the Society Ordo Templi Orientis, led by Brazilian Thelemite [[Marcelo Ramos Motta]].{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p=7}}\nAnother American Thelemite was the filmmaker [[Kenneth Anger]], who had been influenced by Crowley\'s writings from a young age.{{sfn|Landis|1995|pp=26?34}}[{{cite news |title=Kenneth Anger: celluloid sorcery and psychedelic Satanism |first=Mark |last=Pilkington |magazine=Bizarre Magazine |date=15 May 2007 |url=http://www.bizarremag.com/entertainment/movies/68/kenneth_anger.html |accessdate=15 November 2010| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101205065318/http://www.bizarremag.com/entertainment/movies/68/kenneth_anger.html| archivedate= 5 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}] In the United Kingdom, [[Kenneth Grant]] propagated a tradition known as Typhonian Thelema through his organisation, the Typhonian O.T.O., later renamed the [[Typhonian Order]].{{sfn|Evans|2007|pp=284?350}}\nAlso in Britain, an occultist known as [[Amado Crowley]] claimed to be Crowley\'s son; these claims have been refuted by academic investigation. Amado argued that Thelema was a false religion created by Crowley to hide his true esoteric teachings, which Amado claimed to be propagating.{{sfn|Evans|2007|pp=229?283}}\n\nSeveral Western esoteric traditions other than Thelema were also influenced by Crowley. Gerald Gardner, founder of [[Gardnerian Wicca]], made use of much of Crowley\'s published material when composing the Gardnerian ritual liturgy,{{sfn|Hutton|2012|pp=285?306}} and the Australian witch [[Rosaleen Norton]] was also heavily influenced by Crowley\'s ideas.{{sfn|Richmond|2012|pp=307?334}} [[L. Ron Hubbard]], the American founder of [[Scientology]], was involved in Thelema in the early 1940s (with [[Jack Parsons (rocket engineer)|Jack Parsons]]), and it has been argued that [[Scientology and the occult|Crowley\'s ideas influenced some of Hubbard\'s work]].{{sfn|Urban|2012|pp=335?368}} Two prominent figures in religious Satanism, [[Anton LaVey]] and Michael Aquino, were also influenced by Crowley\'s work.{{sfn|Dyrendal|2012|pp=369?394}}\n\nCrowley also had a wider influence in British popular culture. He was included as one of the figures on the cover art of [[The Beatles]]\' album \'\'[[Sgt. Pepper\'s Lonely Hearts Club Band]]\'\' (1967),{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p=7}} and his motto of \"Do What Thou Wilt\" was inscribed on the vinyl of [[Led Zeppelin]]\'s album \'\'[[Led Zeppelin III]]\'\' (1970).{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p=7}} Led Zeppelin co-founder [[Jimmy Page]] bought Boleskine in 1971, and part of the band\'s film \'\'[[The Song Remains the Same (film)|The Song Remains the Same]]\'\' was filmed in the grounds. He sold it in 1992.[{{cite news |title=House of the unholy |first= |last= |newspaper=[[The Scotsman]]|date=23 November 2007 |url=http://www.scotsman.com/what-s-on/music/house-of-the-unholy-1-700265 |accessdate=21 July 2015| archiveurl= | archivedate= | deadurl= }}] [[David Bowie]] made reference to Crowley in the lyrics of his song \"[[Quicksand (David Bowie song)|Quicksand]]\" (1971),{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p=7}} while [[Ozzy Osbourne]] and his lyricist [[Bob Daisley]] wrote a song titled \"[[Mr Crowley]]\" (1980).{{sfn|Moreman|2003}} \n\n==Bibliography==\n\n{{Main|List of works by Aleister Crowley}}\n\n==References==\n\n===Footnotes===\n{{Reflist|20em}}\n\n===Sources===\n{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}\n: {{cite contribution|contribution=Introduction |last1=Bogdan |first1=Henrik |last2=Starr |first2=Martin P. |year=2012 |title=Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |editors=Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-986309-9 |pages=3?14 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title=A Magick Life: The Biography of Aleister Crowley |last=Booth |first=Martin |authorlink=Martin Booth |year= 2000 |publisher=Coronet Books |location=London |isbn=978-0-340-71806-3|nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution |contribution=Crowley and After |last1=Cavendish |first1=Richard|authorlink=Richard Cavendish (occult writer) |year=1978 |title=A History of Magic |publisher=Sphere Books |location=London| pages=167?79 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title=Aleister Crowley: The Biography |last=Churton |first=Tobias |authorlink=Tobias Churton |year= 2011 |publisher=Watkins Books |location=London |isbn=978-1-78028-012-7 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title= The Confessions of Aleister Crowley: An Autohagiography |last=Crowley |first=Aleister |year= 1989 |publisher=Arkana |location= London |isbn=978-0-14-019189-9 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title= The Magick of Aleister Crowley: A Handbook of Rituals of Thelema |last=DuQuette |first=Lon Milo |authorlink=Lon Milo DuQuette |year=2003 |publisher=Weiser |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-1-57863-299-2 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution|contribution=Satan and the Beast: The Influence of Aleister Crowley on Modern Satanism |last=Dyrendal |first=Asbj?rn |year=2012 |title=Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |editors=Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-986309-9 |pages=369?394 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title=The History of British Magick After Crowley |last=Evans |first=Dave |year=2007 |publisher=Hidden Publishing |location=n.p. |isbn=978-0-9555237-0-0 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution|contribution=Foreword |last=Hanegraaff |first=Wouter J. |authorlink=Wouter J. Hanegraaff |year=2012 |title=Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |editors=Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-986309-9 |pages=vii?x |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution|contribution=Crowley and Wicca |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |authorlink=Ronald Hutton |year=2012 |title=Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |editors=Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-986309-9 |pages=285?306 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title=Perdurabo: The Life of Aleister Crowley |edition=2nd |last=Kaczynski |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Kaczynski |year=2010 |publisher=North Atlantic Books |location=Berkeley, California |isbn=978-0-312-25243-4 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title=Anger: The Unauthorised Biography of Kenneth Anger |last=Landis |first=Bill |year=1995 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=New York |isbn=978-0-06-016700-4 |nopp=|ref=harv}}\n: {{cite news |title=Devil Music and the Great Beast: Ozzy Osbourne, Aleister Crowley, and the Christian Right |last=Moreman |first=Christopher M. |year=2003 |journal=The Journal of Religion and Popular Culture |volume=3 |number=1 |location= |publisher= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite news |title=The Heart of Thelema: Morality, Amorality, and Immorality in Aleister Crowley\'s Thelemic Cult |last=Morgan |first=Mogg |year=2011 |journal=The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies |volume=13 |number=2 |location=London |publisher=Equinox |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title=Aleister Crowley: A Modern Master |last=Moore |first=John |year=2009 |publisher=Mandrake |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-906958-02-2 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution|contribution=The Sorcerer and His Apprentice: Aleister Crowley and the Magical Exploration of Edwardian Subjectivity |last=Owen |first=Alex |year=2012 |title=Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |editors=Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-986309-9 |pages=15?52 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title=Aleister Crowley and the Temptation of Politics |last=Pasi |first=Marco |year=2014 |origyear=1999 |others=Ariel Godwin (translator) |publisher=Acumen |location=Durham |isbn=978-1-84465-696-7 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution|contribution=Through the Witch\'s Looking Glass: The Magick of Aleister Crowley and the Witchcraft of Rosaleen Norton |last=Richmond |first=Keith |year=2012 |title=Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |editors=Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-986309-9 |pages=307?334 |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title= Secret Agent 666: Aleister Crowley, British Intelligence and the Occult |last=Spence |first=Richard B. |year=2008 |publisher=Feral House |location=Port Townsend, WA |isbn=978-1-932595-33-8 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title= Do What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley |last=Sutin |first=Lawrence |authorlink=Lawrence Sutin |year= 2000 |publisher=St Martin\'s Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-312-25243-4 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite book |title= The Beast 666: The Life of Aleister Crowley |last=Symonds |first=John |authorlink=John Symonds |year= 1997 |publisher=Pindar Press |location=London |isbn=978-1-899828-21-0 |nopp= |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite news |title= Walk Like an Egyptian: Egypt as Authority in Aleister Crowley\'s Reception of \'\'The Book of the Law\'\' |last=Tully |first=Caroline |year=2010 |journal=The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies |volume=12 |number=1 |location= London |publisher=Equinox |ref=harv}}\n: {{cite contribution|contribution=The Occult Roots of Scientology? L. Ron Hubbard, Aleister Crowley, and the Origins of a Controversial New Religion |last=Urban |first=Hugh B. |year=2012 |title=Aleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |editors=Bogdan, Henrik; Starr, Martin P. |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford and New York |isbn=978-0-19-986309-9 |pages=335?368 |ref=harv}}\n{{refend}}\n\n==External links==\n{{sister project links|b=no|n=no|v=no|wikt=no|author=yes|commons=Category:Aleister Crowley|d=Q172684}}\n* {{Gutenberg author | id=Crowley,+Aleister | name=Aleister Crowley}}\n* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Aleister Crowley}}\n* {{Librivox author |id=3219}}\n* [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/research/fa/lfcrowley.html Aleister Crowley Collection] at the [[Harry Ransom Center]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]\n* [http://hermetic.com/crowley The Libri of Aleister Crowley] Many of the writings of Crowley have been published for free online.\n* [http://aleistercrowleyfoundation.net/ Aleister Crowley Foundation] Dedicated to perpetuating the teachings of Aleister Crowley and Thelema.\n* [http://www.wondersofsicily.com/cefalu-aleister-crowley-abbey-thelema.htm Photos of the Abbey of Thelema in Cefal?] Aleister Crowley and the Abbey of Thelema in Cefal?.\n* [http://www.carlosatanes.com/#!perdurabo/c1oy7 \'\'Perdurabo (Where is Aleister Crowley?)\'\'] A film on the Abbey of Thelema by [[Carlos Atanes]].\n\n{{Thelema series}}\n{{Magic and Witchcraft in the British Isles}}\n{{New Age Movement}}\n{{Authority control}}\n\n{{DEFAULTSORT:Crowley, Aleister}}\n[[Category:Aleister Crowley| ]]\n[[Category:1875 births]]\n[[Category:1947 deaths]]\n[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge]]\n[[Category:Bisexual writers]]\n[[Category:Channellers]]\n[[Category:English expatriates in India]]\n[[Category:English expatriates in Switzerland]]\n[[Category:English astrological writers]]\n[[Category:English autobiographers]]\n[[Category:English astrologers]]\n[[Category:English chess players]]\n[[Category:English dramatists and playwrights]]\n[[Category:English Freemasons]]\n[[Category:English mountain climbers]]\n[[Category:English occultists]]\n[[Category:English occult writers]]\n[[Category:English spiritual writers]]\n[[Category:English Thelemites]]\n[[Category:Founders of new religious movements]]\n[[Category:Free love advocates]]\n[[Category:Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]\n[[Category:Hermetic Qabalists]]\n[[Category:LGBT writers from England]]\n[[Category:Magick]]\n[[Category:Mystics]]\n[[Category:Obscenity controversies in literature]]\n[[Category:Members of Ordo Templi Orientis]]\n[[Category:Psychedelic drug advocates]]\n[[Category:People educated at Eastbourne College]]\n[[Category:People educated at Malvern College]]\n[[Category:People educated at Tonbridge School]]\n[[Category:People from Royal Leamington Spa]]\n[[Category:Prophets]]\n[[Category:Thelema]]\n[[Category:Thelemite saints]]\n[[Category:Bisexual men]]\n[[Category:19th-century British writers]]\n[[Category:20th-century British writers]]\n[[Category:19th-century poets]]\n[[Category:20th-century English novelists]]\n[[Category:LGBT novelists]]\n[[Category:Victorian writers]]\n[[Category:Social critics]]\n[[Category:English male dramatists and playwrights]]\n[[Category:Deaths from bronchitis]]\n[[Category:English male novelists]]\n[[Category:People who faked their own death]]'
'Afterlife' '{{other uses}}\n{{redirect10|After death|Life after death|Hereafter}}\n{{anthropology of religion|Basic|image=[[File:GuideToTheAfterlife-CustodianForGoddessAmun-AltesMuseum-Berlin.png|350px|center]] Ancient Egyptian papyrus depicting the journey into the afterlife.[[File:Anonymous-Paradise of Bhaishajyaguru.jpg|350px|center]] \'\'Paradise of Bhaishajyaguru\'\' discovered at the [[Mogao Caves]].}}\nIn [[philosophy]], [[religion]], [[mythology]], and [[fiction]], the \'\'\'afterlife\'\'\' (also referred to as \'\'\'life after death\'\'\' or the \'\'\'Hereafter\'\'\') is the concept of a realm, or the realm itself (whether physical or [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendental]]), in which an [[essence|essential part]] of an individual\'s identity or consciousness continues to exist after [[death|the death of the body]] in the individual\'s lifetime. According to various ideas about the afterlife, the essential aspect of the individual that lives on after death may be some partial element, or the entire [[soul]] or [[spirit]], of an individual, which carries with it and confers personal identity. Belief in an afterlife, which may be [[Naturalism (philosophy)|natural]]istic or [[supernatural]], is in contrast to the belief in [[eternal oblivion|oblivion after death]].\n\nIn some popular views, this continued existence often takes place in a [[Spirituality|spiritual]] realm, and in other popular views, the individual may be [[#Reincarnation|reborn]] into [[World (theology)|this world]] and begin the life cycle over again, likely with no memory of what they have done in the past. In this latter view, such rebirths and deaths may take place over and over again continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or [[Otherworld]]. Major views on the afterlife derive from [[religion]], [[esotericism]] and [[metaphysics]].\n\nSome belief systems, such as those in the [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic tradition]], hold that the dead go to a specific [[Plane (esotericism)|plane of existence]] after death, as determined by a [[god]], gods, or other [[divine judgment]], based on their [[orthopraxy|actions]] or [[orthodoxy|beliefs]] during life. In contrast, in systems of [[#Reincarnation|reincarnation]], such as those in the [[Indian religions]], the nature of the continued existence is determined directly by the actions of the individual in the ended life, rather than through the decision of another being.\n\n==The afterlife in different metaphysical models==\n{{see also|list of philosophical questions}}\nIn metaphysical models, [[theists]] generally believe some type of afterlife awaits people when they die. Members of some generally non-theistic religions, tend to believe in an afterlife, but without reference to a deity. The [[Sadducees]] were an ancient Jewish sect that generally believed that there was a God but no afterlife.\n\nMany religions, whether they believe in the soul\'s existence in another world like Christianity, Islam and many [[Paganism|pagan]] belief systems, or in reincarnation like many forms of Hinduism and Buddhism, believe that one\'s status in the afterlife is a reward or punishment for their conduct during life.\n\n===Reincarnation===\n{{main|Reincarnation}}\nReincarnation refers to an afterlife concept found among Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, [[Rosicrucian]]s, [[Theosophy|Theosophists]], [[Spiritism|Spiritists]], and Wiccans. Reincarnation is also a belief described in [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic]] Judaism as gilgul neshamot (Reincarnation of Souls).[{{cite web|url=http://www.projectmind.org/exoteric/souls.html |title=Gilgul Neshamot - Reincarnation of Souls |publisher=Projectmind.org |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}] In reincarnation, spiritual development continues after death as the deceased begins another earthly life in the [[Physical plane|physical world]], acquiring a superior grade of consciousness and [[altruism]] by means of successive reincarnations. This succession leads toward an eventual [[salvation|liberation]].\n\nOne consequence of reincarnationist beliefs is that our current lives are both afterlife and a beforelife. According to those beliefs events in our current life are consequences of actions taken in previous lives, or Karma.\n\nRosicrucians,[[[Max Heindel]], The Rosicrucian Christianity Lectures ([http://www.rosicrucian.com/rcl/rcleng01.htm#lecture1 The Riddle of Life and Death]), 1908, ISBN 0-911274-84-7] in the same way of those who have had [[near-death experiences]], speak of a [[life review]] period occurring immediately after death and before entering the afterlife\'s [[Plane (esotericism)|planes of existence]] (before the [[silver cord]] is broken), followed by a [[Last Judgment#Esoteric Christian tradition|judgment]], more akin to a Final Review or End Report over one\'s life.[Max Heindel, [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/death5.htm Death and Life in Purgatory]?[http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/death6.htm Life and Activity in Heaven]]\n\n===Heaven and hell===\n{{unreferenced section|date=June 2015}}\nIn [[Abrahamic religion]]s, the view is generally held that one goes to [[hell]] or [[heaven]] depending on one\'s deeds or [[faith]] while on Earth, or [[predestination]] and [[Unconditional election]], or to the [[intermediate state]] to await the [[Resurrection of the Dead]]. In most denominations, heaven is a condition of reward for the righteous to go after they die, traditionally defined as eternal union with God.\n\nIn contrast to heaven, hell is a condition of punishment and torment for the wicked, traditionally defined as eternal separation from God and confinement with other sinful souls and fallen angels.\n\n===Limbo===\n{{main|Limbo}}\nDespite popular opinion, Limbo, which was elaborated upon by theologians beginning in the Middle Ages, was never recognized as a [[dogma]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], yet, at times, it has been a very popular theological theory within the Church. Limbo is a theory that unbaptized but innocent souls, such as those of infants, [[Virtue#Christianity|virtuous]] individuals who lived before [[Nativity of Jesus|Jesus Christ was born on earth]], or those that die before [[baptism]] exist in neither Heaven or Hell proper. Therefore, these souls neither merit the [[beatific vision]], nor are subjected to any punishment, because they are not guilty of any personal [[sin]] although they have not received baptism, so still bear [[original sin]]. So they are generally seen as existing in a state of natural, but not supernatural, happiness, until the end of time.\n\nIn other [[Christian denominations]] it has been described as an [[intermediate state|intermediate place]] or state of confinement in oblivion and neglect.[{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/limbo |title=limbo - definition of limbo by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}]\n\n===Purgatory===\n{{main|Purgatory}}\nThe notion of [[purgatory]] is associated particularly with the [[Catholic Church]]. In the Catholic Church, all those who die in God\'s grace and friendship, but still imperfectly purified, are indeed assured of their eternal salvation; but after death they undergo purification, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven or the final purification of the elect, which is entirely different from the punishment of the damned. The tradition of the church, by reference to certain texts of scripture, speaks of a \"cleansing fire\" although it is not always called purgatory.\n\n[[Anglican]]s of the [[Anglo-Catholic]] tradition generally also hold to the belief. [[John Wesley]], the founder of [[Methodism]], believed in an [[intermediate state]] between death and the [[resurrection of the dead]] and in the possibility of \"continuing to grow in holiness there\", but Methodism does not officially affirm this belief and denies the possibility of [[Prayer for the dead|helping by prayer]] any who may be in that state.[Ted Campbell, Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials (Abingdon 1999), quoted in [http://www.umportal.org/article.asp?id=5101 Feature article by \'\'United Methodist Reporter\'\' Managing Editor Robin Russell] and in [http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=lwL4KnN1LtH&b=4746355&content_id=%7B94F6F768-0EA6-4C1B-B6B6-0C88EC04E8A2%7D¬oc=1 FAQ Belief: What happens immediately after a person dies?]]\n\n==Traditional African religions==\n\n[[Traditional African religion]]s are diverse in their beliefs in an afterlife. [[Hunter-gatherer]] societies such as the [[Hadza people|Hazda]] have no particular belief in an afterlife, and the death of an individual is a straightforward end to their existence.[{{cite book|last1=Bond|first1=George C.|editor1-last=Obayashi|editor1-first=Hiroshi|title=Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date=1992|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=New York|isbn=0-313-27906-3|pages=3?18|chapter=Living with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quote=The entire process of death and burial is simple, without elaborate rituals and beliefs in an afterlife. The social and spiritual existence of the person ends with the burial of the corpse.}}] [[Veneration of the dead|Ancestor cults]] are found throughout [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], including cultures like the [[Yombe people|Yombe]],[{{cite book|last1=Bond|first1=George C.|editor1-last=Obayashi|editor1-first=Hiroshi|title=Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date=1992|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=New York|isbn=0-313-27906-3|pages=3?18|chapter=Living with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quote=The belief in the ancestors remains a strong and active spiritual and moral force in the daily lives of the Yombe; the ancestors are thought to intervene in the affairs of the living.... The afterlife is this world.}}] [[List of Mand? peoples of Africa|Beng]],[{{cite journal|last1=Gottlieb|first1=Alma|last2=Graham|first2=Philip|last3=Gottlieb-Graham|first3=Nathaniel|title=Infants, Ancestors, and the Afterlife: Fieldwork\'s Family Values in Rural West Africa|journal=Anthropology and Humanism|date=1998|volume=23|issue=2|page=121|doi=10.1525/ahu.1998.23.2.121|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/ahu.1998.23.2.121/abstract|accessdate=24 June 2015|quote=But Kokora Kouassi, an old friend and respected Master of the Earth in the village of Asagb?, came to our compound early one morning to describe the dream he had just had: he had been visited by the revered and ancient founder of his matriclan, Denju, who confided that Nathaniel was his reincarnation and so should be given his name. The following morning a small ritual was held, and Nathaniel was officially announced to the world not only as Denju but as N\'zri Denju?Grandfather Denju?an honorific that came to be used even by Nathaniel\'s closest playing companions.}}] [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] and [[Ewe people|Ewe]], \"[T]he belief that the dead come back into life and are reborn into their families is given concrete expression in the personal names that are given to children....What is reincarnated are some of the dominant characteristics of the ancestor and not his soul. For each soul remains distinct and each birth represents a new soul.\"[{{cite book|last1=Opoku|first1=Kofi Asare|editor1-last=Badham|editor1-first=Paul|editor2-last=Badham|editor2-first=Linda|title=Death and Immortality in the Religions of the World|date=1987|publisher=Paragon House|location=New York|isbn=0-913757-54-3|pages=9?23|accessdate=23 June 2015|chapter=Death and Immortality in the African Religious Heritage|url=https://openlibrary.org/books/OL25695134M/}}] The Yoruba, [[Dogon people|Dogon]] and LoDagoa have eschatological ideas similar to Abrahamic religions, \"but in most African societies, there is a marked absence of such clear-cut notions of heaven and hell, although there are notions of God judging the soul after death.\"[{{cite book|last1=Bond|first1=George C.|editor1-last=Obayashi|editor1-first=Hiroshi|title=Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date=1992|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=New York|isbn=0-313-27906-3|pages=3?18|chapter=Living with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quote=The process of being born, dying, and moving to a lower level of earth continues through ten lives.}}] One cross-cultural theme is that the ancestors are part of the world of the living, interacting with it regularly.[{{cite book|last1=Bond|first1=George C.|editor1-last=Obayashi|editor1-first=Hiroshi|title=Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date=1992|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=New York|isbn=0-313-27906-3|pages=3?18|chapter=Living with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quote=The ancestors are of people, whereas God is external to creation. They are of this world and close to the living. The Yombe believe that the afterlife of the ancestors lies in this world and that they are a spiritual and moral force within it.}}][{{cite book|last1=Bond|first1=George C.|editor1-last=Obayashi|editor1-first=Hiroshi|title=Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date=1992|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=New York|isbn=0-313-27906-3|pages=3?18|chapter=Living with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quote=Death represents a transition from corporeal to incorporeal life in the religious heritage of Africa and the incorporeal life is taken to be as real as the corporeal.}}][{{cite book|last1=Ephirim-Donkor|first1=Anthony|title=African Religion Defined a Systematic Study of Ancestor Worship among the Akan.|date=2012|publisher=University Press of America|location=Lanham|isbn=9780761860587|page=26|edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndxOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|accessdate=25 June 2015}}]\n\n==Ancient religions==\n\n===Ancient Egyptian religion===\n{{main|Ancient Egyptian religion#Afterlife}}\nThe afterlife played an important role in [[Ancient Egyptian religion]], and its belief system is one of the earliest known in recorded history. When the body died, parts of its soul known as \'\'ka\'\' (body double) and the \'\'ba\'\' (personality) would go to the Kingdom of the Dead. While the soul dwelt in the [[Aaru|Fields of Aaru]], [[Osiris]] demanded work as restitution for the protection he provided. Statues were placed in the tombs to serve as substitutes for the deceased.[Richard P. Taylor, \'\'Death and the afterlife: A Cultural Encyclopedia\'\', ABC-CLIO, 2000, ISBN 0-87436-939-8]\n\nArriving at one\'s reward in afterlife was a demanding ordeal, requiring a sin-free heart and the ability to recite the spells, passwords and formulae of the [[Book of the Dead]]. In the Hall of Two Truths, the deceased\'s heart was weighed against the \'\'Shu\'\' feather of truth and justice taken from the headdress of the goddess [[Ma\'at]].[{{cite book | last = Bard| first = Katheryn | title = Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt | publisher = Routledge | year = 1999| isbn = }}] If the heart was lighter than the feather, they could pass on, but if it were heavier they would be devoured by the demon [[Ammit]].[Kathryn Demeritt, \'\'Ptah\'s Travels: Kingdoms of Ancient Egypt\'\', 2005, p. 82]\n\nEgyptians also believed that being mummified and put in a sarcophagus (an ancient Egyptian \"coffin\" carved with complex symbols and designs, as well as pictures and hieroglyphs) was the only way to have an afterlife. Only if the corpse had been properly [[Embalming|embalmed]] and entombed in a [[mastaba]], could the [[Resurrection of the Dead|dead live again]] in the Fields of Yalu and accompany the Sun on its daily ride. Due to the dangers the afterlife posed, the Book of the Dead was placed in the tomb with the body as well as food, jewellery, and \'curses\'. They also used the \"opening of the mouth\".[Glennys Howarth, Oliver Leaman, \'\'Encyclopedia of death and dying\'\', 2001, p. 238][Natalie Lunis, \'\'Tut\'s Deadly Tomb\'\', 2010, p. 11]\n\nAncient Egyptian civilization was based on religion; their belief in the rebirth after death became their driving force behind their funeral practices. Death was simply a temporary interruption, rather than complete cessation, of life, and that eternal life could be ensured by means like piety to the gods, preservation of the physical form through [[mummification]], and the provision of statuary and other funerary equipment. Each human consisted of the physical body, the \'ka\', the \'ba\', and the \'akh\'. The Name and Shadow were also living entities. To enjoy the afterlife, all these elements had to be sustained and protected from harm.[Fergus Fleming, Alan Lothian, \'\'Ancient Egypt\'s Myths and Beliefs\'\', 2011, p. 96]\n\nOn March 30, 2010, a spokesman for the Egyptian Culture Ministry claimed it had unearthed a large red granite door in Luxor with inscriptions by User,[{{cite web|url=http://www.meeja.com.au/articles/door-to-afterlife-found-in-egyptian-tomb|title=Door to Afterlife found in Egyptian tomb |publisher=www.meeja.com.au |date=2010-03-30 |accessdate=2008-09-30 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706110016/http://www.meeja.com.au/articles/door-to-afterlife-found-in-egyptian-tomb |archivedate=2011-07-06}}] a powerful adviser to the [[18th dynasty]] Queen [[Hatshepsut]] who ruled between 1479 BC and 1458 BC, the longest of any woman. It believes the false door is a \'door to the Afterlife\'. According to the archaeologists, the door was reused in a structure in [[Roman Egypt]].\n\n===Ancient Greek and Roman religions===\n{{main|Greek underworld}}\nThe Greek god [[Hades]] is known in [[Greek mythology]] as the king of the [[underworld]], a place where souls live after death.[F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers, \"Burial customs, the afterlife and the pollution of death in ancient Greece\", \'\'Acta Theologica\'\' \'\'\'26\'\'\'(2), 2006, p. 45 ([http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/viewFile/52560/41166 PDF]).] The Greek god [[Hermes]], the messenger of the gods, would take the dead soul of a person to the underworld (sometimes called Hades or the House of Hades). Hermes would leave the soul on the banks of the River [[Styx]], the river between life and death.[Social Studies School Service, \'\'Ancient Greece\'\', 2003, pp. 49?51]\n\n[[Charon (mythology)|Charon]], also known as the ferry-man, would take the soul across the river to Hades, if the soul had gold: Upon burial, the family of the dead soul would put coins under the deceased\'s tongue. Once crossed, the soul would be judged by [[Aeacus]], [[Rhadamanthus]] and King [[Minos]]. The soul would be sent to [[Elysium]], [[Tartarus]], [[Asphodel Fields]], or the Fields of Punishment. The Elysian Fields were for the ones that lived pure lives. It consisted of green fields, valleys and mountains, everyone there was peaceful and contented, and the Sun always shone there. Tartarus was for the people that blasphemed against the gods, or were simply rebellious and consciously evil.[Perry L. Westmoreland, \'\'Ancient Greek Beliefs\'\', 2007, pp. 68?70]\n\nThe Asphodel Fields were for a varied selection of human souls: Those whose sins equalled their goodness, were indecisive in their lives, or were not judged. The Fields of Punishment were for people that had sinned often, but not so much as to be deserving of Tartarus. In Tartarus, the soul would be punished by being burned in lava, or stretched on racks. Some heroes of Greek legend are allowed to visit the underworld. The Romans had a similar belief system about the afterlife, with Hades becoming known as [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]]. In the ancient Greek myth about the [[Labours of Heracles]], the hero [[Heracles]] had to travel to the underworld to capture [[Cerberus]], the three-headed guard dog, as one of his tasks.\n\nIn \'\'[[Dream of Scipio]]\'\', [[Cicero]] describes what seems to be an [[out of body experience]], of the [[soul]] traveling high above the Earth, looking down at the small planet, from far away.[N. Sabir, \'\'Heaven Hell Or\'\', 2010, p. 147]\n\nIn Book VI of [[Virgil]]\'s \'\'[[Aeneid]]\'\', the hero, [[Aeneas]], travels to the underworld to see his father. By the River Styx, he sees the souls of those not given a proper burial, forced to wait by the river until someone buries them. While down there, along with the dead, he is shown the place where the wrongly convicted reside, the fields of sorrow where those who committed suicide and now regret it reside, including Aeneas\' former lover, the warriors and shades, Tartarus (where the titans and powerful non-mortal enemies of the Olympians reside) where he can hear the groans of the imprisoned, the palace of [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]], and the fields of Elysium where the descendants of the divine and bravest heroes reside. He sees the river of forgetfulness, [[Lethe]], which the dead must drink to forget their life and begin anew. Lastly, his father shows him all of the future heroes of Rome who will live if Aeneas fulfills his destiny in founding the city.\n\n===Norse religion===\n{{unreferenced section|date=December 2014}}\nThe [[Poetic Edda|Poetic]] and [[Prose Edda]]s, the oldest sources for information on the Norse concept of the afterlife, vary in their description of the several realms that are described as falling under this topic. The most well-known are:\n* [[Valhalla]]: (lit. \"Hall of the Slain\" i.e. \"the Chosen Ones\") Half the warriors who die in battle join the god [[Odin]] who rules over a majestic hall called Valhalla in [[Asgard]].\n* [[F?lkvangr]]: (lit. \"Field of the Host\") The other half join the goddess [[Freyja]] in a great meadow known as F?lkvangr.\n* [[Hel (realm)|Hel]]: (lit. \"The Covered Hall\") This abode is somewhat like [[Hades]] from Ancient Greek religion: there, something not unlike the [[Asphodel Meadows]] can be found, and people who have neither excelled in that which is good nor excelled in that which is bad can expect to go there after they die and be reunited with their loved ones.\n* [[Niflhel]]: (lit. \"The Dark\" or \"Misty Hel\") This realm is roughly analogous to Greek [[Tartarus]]. It is the deeper level beneath Hel, and those who break oaths and commit other vile things will be sent there to be among their kind to suffer harsh punishments.\n\n==Abrahamic religions==\n\n===Judaism===\n{{main|Jewish eschatology}}\n\n====She\'ol====\nWriting that would later be incorporated into the [[Hebrew Bible]] names [[Sheol]] as the place of the dead.[Harris, Stephen. Understanding the Bible.] The Christian writer\'s traditional re-interpretation is that the Hebrew word Sheol can mean many things, including \"grave\", \"resort\", \"place of waiting\" and \"place of healing\". It can also mean \"deep\", as it is used when the earth opens up and destroys the rebellious Korah, Dathan and Abiram and their 250 followers ({{niv|Numbers|16:31-33|Numbers 16:31-33}}). One might take this as implying that Sheol is literally underground, although it is as easily read literally, as signifying an earthquake or split in the earth.\n\nThe First of the [[Books of Samuel]] 29:3-19 (The [[Eliyahu Koren]] Bible)\n\"Now Samuel was dead...Then said Saul to his servants, Seek me a woman who is a medium...and he said...Bring me up Samuel... And Saul knew that it was Samuel... And Samuel said to Saul, Why hast thou disquieted me, to bring me up? And Saul answered, I am greatly distressed...Then said Samuel, Why then dost thou ask of me, seeing the Lord has departed from thee, and is become thy enemy? ... and to morrow shalt thou and thy sons be with me.\"\n\n[[Ecclesiastes]]:\n\"For what happens to the sons of men also happens to animals; one thing befalls them: as one dies, so dies the other. Surely, they all have one breath; man has no advantage over animals, for all is vanity. All go to one place: all are from the dust, and all return to dust. Who knows the spirit of the sons of men, which goes upward, and the spirit of the animal, which goes down to the earth?\" ([[Ecclesiastes|Ecc.]] 3:19-21 [[New King James Version|NKJV]])\n\n\"But for him who is joined to all the living there is hope, for a living dog is better than a dead lion. For the living know that they will die; But the dead know nothing, And they have no more reward, For the memory of them is forgotten. Also their love, their hatred, and their envy have now perished; Nevermore will they have a share in anything done under the sun.\" (Ecc. 9:4-6 NKJV)\n\nSimilarly Psalms 146:2-4 (NKJV) states:\n\"Do not put your trust in princes, Nor in a son of man, in whom there is no help. His spirit departs, he returns to his earth; In that very day his plans perish.\"\n\nIn the book of Job it is stated:\n\"But man dies and is laid away; indeed he breathes his last and where is he? ... So man lies down and does not rise. Till the heavens are no more, they will not awake nor be roused from their sleep ... If a man dies, shall he live again?\" (Job 14:10,12,14a NKJV)\n\n====Olam Haba====\nThe Talmud offers a number of thoughts relating to the afterlife. Talmudic authorities agree that any virtuous gentile will be given a share in the world-to-come.\nAfter death, the soul is brought for judgment. Those who have led pristine lives enter immediately into the \"[[Olam Haba]]\" or World to Come. Most do not enter the World to Come immediately, but now experience a period of review of their earthly actions and they are made aware of what they have done wrong. Some view this period as being a \"re-schooling\", with the soul gaining wisdom as one\'s errors are reviewed. Others view this period to include spiritual discomfort for past wrongs. At the end of this period, not longer than one year, the soul then takes its place in the World to Come. Although discomforts are made part of certain Jewish conceptions of the afterlife, the concept of \"eternal damnation\", so prevalent in other religions, is no tenet of the Jewish afterlife. According to the Talmud, extinction of the soul is reserved for a far much smaller group of malicious and evil leaders, either whose very evil deeds go way beyond norms, or who lead large groups of people to utmost evil.[{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/tsa/tsa37.htm |title=Tractate Sanhedrin: Interpolated Section: Those Who have no Share in the World to Come |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}][{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0011_0_10049.html |title=Jehoiakim |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}]\n\n[[Maimonides]] describes the [[Olam Haba]] (\"World to Come\") in spiritual terms, relegating the prophesied physical resurrection to the status of a future miracle, unrelated to the afterlife or the Messianic era. According to Maimonides, an afterlife continues for the soul of every human being, a soul now separated from the body in which it was \"housed\" during its earthly existence.\n\nThe [[Zohar]] describes [[Gehenna]] not as a place of punishment for the wicked but as a place of spiritual purification for souls.[{{cite web|url=http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/06-Jewish-Thought/section-9.html |title=soc.culture.jewish FAQ: Jewish Thought (6/12)Section - Question 12.8: What do Jews say happens when a person dies? Do Jews believe in reincarnation? In hell or heaven? Purgato |publisher=Faqs.org |date=2012-08-08 |accessdate=2014-03-08}}]\n\n====Reincarnation in Jewish tradition====\nAlthough there is no reference to reincarnation in the Talmud or any prior writings,[Saadia Gaon in Emunoth ve-Deoth Section vi] according to rabbis such as Avraham Arieh Trugman, reincarnation is recognized as being part and parcel of Jewish tradition. Trugman explains that it is through oral tradition that the meanings of the Torah, its commandments and stories, are known and understood. The classic work of Jewish mysticism,[{{YouTube|mM8dn68vgD8|Reincarnation in the Jewish Tradition}}] the Zohar, is quoted liberally in all Jewish learning; in the Zohar the idea of reincarnation is mentioned repeatedly. Trugman states that in the last five centuries the concept of reincarnation, which until then had been a much hidden tradition within Judaism, was given open exposure.[\n\nShraga Simmons commented that within the Bible itself, the idea [of reincarnation] is intimated in Deut. 25:5-10, Deut. 33:6 and Isaiah 22:14, 65:6.][{{cite web|url=http://judaism.about.com/library/3_askrabbi_o/bl_simmons_reincarnation.htm |title=Ask the Rabbi - Reincarnation |publisher=Judaism.about.com |date=2009-12-17 |accessdate=2014-03-08}}]\n\nYirmiyahu Ullman wrote that reincarnation is an \"ancient, mainstream belief in Judaism\". The Zohar makes frequent and lengthy references to reincarnation. Onkelos, a righteous convert and authoritative commentator of the same period, explained the verse, \"Let Reuben live and not die ...\" (Deuteronomy 33:6) to mean that Reuben should merit the World to Come directly, and not have to die again as a result of being reincarnated. Torah scholar, commentator and kabbalist, [[Nachmanides]] (Ramban 1195?1270), attributed Job\'s suffering to reincarnation, as hinted in Job\'s saying \"God does all these things twice or three times with a man, to bring back his soul from the pit to ... the light of the living\' (Job 33:29,30).\"[{{cite web|last=Yirmiyahu |first=Rabbi |url=http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/1077 |title=Reincarnation ? Ask! ? Ohr Somayach |publisher=Ohr.edu |date=2003-07-12 |accessdate=2014-03-08}}]\n\nReincarnation, called \'\'[[gilgul]]\'\', became popular in folk belief, and is found in much [[Yiddish]] literature among [[Ashkenazi Jews]]. Among a few kabbalists, it was posited that some human souls could end up being reincarnated into non-human bodies. These ideas were found in a number of Kabbalistic works from the 13th century, and also among many mystics in the late 16th century. [[Martin Buber]]\'s early collection of stories of the [[Baal Shem Tov]]\'s life includes several that refer to people reincarnating in successive lives.[Martin Buber, \"Legende des Baalschem\" in \'\'Die Chassidischen B?cher\'\', Hellerau 1928, especially \'\'Die niedergestiegene Seele\'\']\n\nAmong well known (generally non-kabbalist or anti-kabbalist) rabbis who rejected the idea of reincarnation are [[Saadia Gaon]], [[David Kimhi]], [[Hasdai Crescas]], Yedayah Bedershi (early 14th century), [[Joseph Albo]], [[Abraham ibn Daud]], the [[Asher ben Jehiel|Rosh]] and [[Leon de Modena]]. Saadia Gaon, in [[Emunoth ve-Deoth]] (Hebrew: \"beliefs and opinions\") concludes Section VI with a refutation of the doctrine of [[metempsychosis]] (reincarnation). While refuting reincarnation, the Saadia Gaon further states that Jews who hold to reincarnation have adopted non-Jewish beliefs. By no means do all Jews today believe in reincarnation, but belief in reincarnation is not uncommon among many Jews, including Orthodox.\n\nOther well-known rabbis who are reincarnationists include Yonassan Gershom, [[Abraham Isaac Kook]], Talmud scholar Adin Steinsaltz, DovBer Pinson, David M. Wexelman, Zalman Schachter,[{{cite web|url=http://www.sytekcom.com/rooster/bta-faq1.html |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716181413/http://www.sytekcom.com/rooster/bta-faq1.html |archivedate=2011-07-16 |title=Reincarnation and the Holocaust FAQ}}] and many others. Reincarnation is cited by authoritative biblical commentators, including Ramban (Nachmanides), Menachem Recanti and Rabbenu Bachya.\n\nAmong the many volumes of Yitzchak Luria, most of which come down from the pen of his primary disciple, Chaim Vital, are insights explaining issues related to reincarnation. His \'\'[[Shaar HaGilgulim]]\'\', \"The Gates of Reincarnation\", is a book devoted exclusively to the subject of reincarnation in Judaism.\n\nRabbi Naftali Silberberg of The [[Rohr Jewish Learning Institute]] notes that ?Many ideas that originate in other religions and belief systems have been popularized in the media and are taken for granted by unassuming Jews.\"[{{cite news|title=Where does the soul go? New course explores spiritual existence|url=http://www.westhartfordnews.com/articles/2015/10/14/news/doc561ecaa6934c1312697232.txt|agency=West Hartford News|date=October 14, 2015|location=Middletown, CT}}]\n\n===Christianity===\n{{main|Christian eschatology}}\n[[Mainstream Christianity]] professes belief in the [[Nicene Creed]], and [[English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use]] include the phrase: \"We look for the [[resurrection of the dead]], and the life of the [[world to come]].\" \'\'Christian eschatology\'\' is concerned with [[death]], an [[intermediate state]], [[Heaven (Christianity)|Heaven]], [[Christian views on hell|Hell]], the [[Second Coming of Christ]], the \'\'resurrection of the dead\'\', a [[rapture]], a [[tribulation]], the [[Millennium]], [[End of the world (religion)|end of the world]], the [[last judgment]], a new heaven and a [[The New Earth|new earth]], and the ultimate consummation of all of God\'s purposes. [[eschatology|Eschatological]] passages are found in many places, especially [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], [[Olivet discourse|Matthew 24]], [[The Sheep and the Goats|Matthew 25]], and the [[Book of Revelation]]. Although punishments are made part of certain Christian conceptions of the afterlife, the prevalent concept of \"eternal damnation\" is a tenet of the Christian afterlife.\n\nWhen questioned by the [[Sadducees]] about the [[resurrection of the dead]] (in a context relating to who one\'s spouse would be if one had been married several times in life), [[Jesus]] said that marriage will be irrelevant after the resurrection as the resurrected will be (at least in this respect) like the [[angels]] in heaven.[{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=matthew%2022:23-33;&version=47; |title=Matthew 22:23-33 |publisher=Biblegateway.com |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}]\n\nJesus also maintained that the time would come when the dead would hear the voice of the [[Son of God]], and all who were in the tombs would come out, who have done good deeds to the resurrection of life, but those who have done wicked deeds to the resurrection of condemnation.[{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PXD.HTM |title=The New American Bible - IntraText |publisher=Vatican.va |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}] According to the [[Gospel of Matthew]], at the death of Jesus tombs were opened, and at [[Resurrection of Jesus|his resurrection]] many [[saints]] who had died emerged from their tombs and went into \"the holy city\", presumably [[New Jerusalem]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=matthew%2027:50-54;&version=47; |title=Matthew 27:50-54 |publisher=Biblegateway.com |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}] No other New Testament account includes this event.\n\n\'\'\'The Last Day\'\'\': Jesus compared the [[Kingdom of God|kingdom of heaven]], over which He rules, to a net which was thrown into the sea and gathered fish of every kind. When it was full, men drew it ashore and sat down and sorted the good into vessels but threw away the bad. So it will be at the close of the age also known as the Last Day. The angels will separate the evil from the [[righteous]] and throw them into [[Hell in Christian beliefs|the furnace of unquenchable fire]]. Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their [[God the Father|Father]].\n\nThe [[Book of Enoch]] describes Sheol as divided into four compartments for four types of the dead: the faithful saints who await resurrection in [[Paradise]], the merely virtuous who await their reward, the wicked who await punishment, and the wicked who have already been punished and will not be resurrected on Judgment Day.[[[Harry Emerson Fosdick|Fosdick, Harry Emerson]]. A guide to understanding the Bible. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1956. page 276.] It should be noted that the Book of Enoch is considered apocryphal by most denominations of Christianity and all denominations of Judaism.\n\nThe book of [[2 Maccabees]] gives a clear account of the dead awaiting a future resurrection and judgment, plus prayers and offerings for the dead to remove the burden of sin.\n\n[[File:Domenico Beccafumi 056.jpg|right|thumb|[[Domenico Beccafumi]]\'s \'\'Inferno\'\': a Christian vision of hell]]\nThe author of [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] recounts the story of [[Lazarus and Dives|Lazarus and the rich man]], which shows people in Hades awaiting the resurrection either in comfort or torment. The author of the [[Book of Revelation]] writes about God and the angels versus [[Satan]] and [[demons]] in an epic battle at the end of times when all souls are judged. There is mention of ghostly bodies of past prophets, and the [[transfiguration of Jesus|transfiguration]].\n\nThe non-canonical [[Acts of Paul and Thecla]] speak of the efficacy of [[prayer for the dead]], so that they might be \"translated to a state of happiness\".[[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/thecla.html Acts of Paul and Thecla] 8:5]\n\n[[Hippolytus of Rome]] pictures the [[underworld]] ([[Hades]]) as a place where the righteous dead, awaiting in the [[bosom of Abraham]] their resurrection, rejoice at their future prospect, while the unrighteous are tormented at the sight of the \"[[Lake of fire|lake of unquenchable fire]]\" into which they are destined to be cast.\n\nGregory of Nyssa discusses the long-before believed possibility of purification of souls after death.[He wrote that a person \"may afterward in a quite different manner be very much interested in what is better, when, \'\'after his departure out of the body\'\', he gains knowledge of the difference between virtue and vice and finds that he is not able to partake of divinity until he has been \'\'purged of the filthy contagion in his soul by the purifying fire\'\'\" (emphasis added)?Sermon on the Dead, AD 382, quoted in [http://www.catholic.com/library/Roots_of_Purgatory.asp The Roots of Purgatory]]\n\nPope Gregory I repeats the concept, articulated over a century earlier by [[Gregory of Nyssa]] that the saved suffer purification after death, in connection with which he wrote of \"purgatorial flames\".\n\nThe noun [[Purgatory|\"purgatorium\"]] (Latin: place of cleansing[[http://www.answers.com/topic/purgatory \"purgatory\"]. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 06 Jun. 2007.]) is used for the first time to describe a state of painful purification of the saved after life. The same word in adjectival form (\'\'purgatorius -a -um\'\', cleansing), which appears also in non-religious writing,[{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2339625 |title=Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, \''A Latin Dictionary\'' |publisher=Perseus.tufts.edu |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}] was already used by Christians such as Augustine of Hippo and [[Pope Gregory I]] to refer to an after-death cleansing.\n\nDuring the [[Age of Enlightenment]], theologians and philosophers presented various philosophies and beliefs. A notable example is [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] who wrote some 18 theological works which describe in detail the nature of the afterlife according to his claimed spiritual experiences, the most famous of which is \'\'[[Heaven and Hell (Swedenborg)|Heaven and Hell]]\'\'.[{{cite web|url=http://www.swedenborgdigitallibrary.org/contets/HH.html |title=Swedenborg, E. \''Heaven and its Wonders and Hell. From Things Heard and Seen\'' (Swedenborg Foundation, 1946) |publisher=Swedenborgdigitallibrary.org |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}] His report of life there covers a wide range of topics, such as [[marriage]] in heaven (where all [[angels]] are married), children in heaven (where they are raised by angel parents), [[time]] and [[space]] in heaven (there are none), the after-death awakening process in the World of Spirits (a place halfway between Heaven and Hell and where people first wake up after death), the allowance of a free will choice between Heaven or Hell (as opposed to being sent to either one by God), the [[eternity]] of [[Hell]] (one could leave but would never want to), and that all angels or devils were once people on earth.[\n\nOn the other hand, the enlightenment produced more rationalist philosophies such as [[deism]]. Many deist freethinkers held that belief in an afterlife with reward and punishment was a necessity of reason and good morals.\n\nMost Christians deny that entry into Heaven can be properly earned, rather it is a gift that is solely God\'s to give through his unmerited grace. This belief follows the theology of [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]]: \'\'For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith?and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God, not by works, so that no one can boast.\'\' The [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]], [[Thomist]], [[Martin Luther|Lutheran]], and [[Calvinist]] theological traditions all emphasize the necessity of God\'s undeserved grace for salvation, and reject so-called [[Pelagianism]], which would make man earn salvation through [[good works]]. Not all Christian sects accept this doctrine, leading to many controversies on [[Grace (Christianity)|grace]] and [[free will]], and the idea of [[predestination]]. In particular, the belief that heaven is a reward for good behavior is a common folk belief in Christian societies, even among members of churches which reject that belief.\n\nSome Christian believers have come to downplay the punishment of hell. [[Universalists]] teach that salvation is for all. Jehovah\'s Witnesses and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]], though they have among the strictest rules on how to conduct their lives, teach that sinners are destroyed rather than tortured forever. John 3:16 says that only those that accept Jesus will be given [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]], so the people that do not accept him cannot burn in hell for eternity because Jesus has not given them eternal life, instead it says they will perish.\n\nIn American pop culture depictions of Heaven, particularly in vintage cartoons such as those by [[Looney Tunes]] in the mid-20th century, the [[Soul (spirit)|souls]] of virtuous people ascend to Heaven and are converted into [[angels]]. However, this is not in accordance with the orthodox Christian theology. Christianity depicts a sharp distinction between \'\'angels\'\', divine beings created by God before the creation of humanity and are used as messengers, and \'\'saints\'\', the souls of humans who have received immortality from the grace of God through faith in Jesus Christ of Nazareth, who dwell in Heaven [[Beatific Vision|with God]].\n\nLatter Day Saints believe that the soul existed before earth life and will exist in the hereafter. Angels are either spirits that have not yet come to earth to experience their mortality, or spirits or resurrected beings that have already passed through mortality and do the will of God. See Job 38:4-7, D&C 93:29. According to LDS Doctrine, Michael the Archangel became the first man on earth, Adam, to experience his mortality. The Angel of Moroni visited the boy, Joseph Smith, after living out his mortal life in ancient America. Later, he received Angelic administrations from the Apostles Peter, James, and John, John the Baptist, and others.\n\n====The Catholic Church====\nThe Catholic conception of the afterlife teaches that [[Particular judgment|after the body dies, the soul is judged]], the righteous and free of sin enter Heaven. However, those who die in unrepented [[mortal sin]] go to hell. In the 1990s, the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] defined hell not as punishment imposed on the sinner but rather as the sinner\'s self-exclusion from God. Unlike other Christian groups, the Catholic Church teaches that those who die in a state of grace, but still carry [[venial sin]] go to a place called [[Purgatory]] where they undergo purification to enter Heaven.\n\n====Orthodox Christianity====\nThe Orthodox Church is intentionally reticent on the afterlife, as it acknowledges the mystery especially of things that have not yet occurred. Beyond the second coming of Jesus, bodily resurrection, and final judgment, all of which is affirmed in the [[Nicene Creed]] (325 CE), Orthodoxy does not teach much else in any definitive manner. Unlike Western forms of Christianity, however, Orthodoxy is traditionally non-dualist and does not teach that there are two separate literal locations of heaven and hell, but instead acknowledges that \"the \'location\' of one?s final destiny?heaven or hell?as being figurative.\"][Andrew P. Klager, \"Orthodox Eschatology and St. Gregory of Nyssa\'s \'\'De vita Moysis\'\': Transfiguration, Cosmic Unity, and Compassion,\" In \'\'Compassionate Eschatology: The Future as Friend\'\', eds. Ted Grimsrud & Michael Hardin, 230-252 (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2011), 245.] Instead, Orthodoxy teaches that the final judgment is simply one\'s uniform encounter with divine love and mercy, but this encounter is experienced multifariously depending on the extent to which one has been transformed, partaken of divinity, and is therefore compatible or incompatible with God. \"The monadic, immutable, and ceaseless object of eschatological encounter is therefore the love and mercy of God, his glory which infuses the heavenly temple, and it is the subjective human reaction which engenders multiplicity or any division of experience.\"[St. Isaac the Syrian, \"Homily 28,\" In \'\'The Ascetical Homilies of Saint Isaac the Syrian,\'\' trans. Dana Miller (Brookline, MA: Holy Transfiguration Monastery Press, 1984), 141.] In this sense, the divine action is always, immutably, and uniformly love and if one experiences this love negatively, the experience is then one of self-condemnation because of free will rather than condemnation by God. Orthodoxy therefore uses the description of Jesus\' judgment in John 3:19-21 as their model: \"19 And this is the judgment: the light has come into the world, and people loved the darkness rather than the light because their works were evil. 20 For everyone who does wicked things hates the light and does not come to the light, lest his works should be exposed. 21 But whoever does what is true comes to the light, so that it may be clearly seen that his works have been carried out in God.? As a characteristically Orthodox understanding, then, Fr. [[Thomas Hopko]] writes, \"[I]t is precisely the presence of God?s mercy and love which cause the torment of the wicked. God does not punish; he forgives. . . . In a word, God has mercy on all, whether all like it or not. If we like it, it is paradise; if we do not, it is hell. Every knee will bend before the Lord. Everything will be subject to Him. God in Christ will indeed be ?all and in all,? with boundless mercy and uncondi- tional pardon. But not all will rejoice in God?s gift of forgiveness, and that choice will be judgment, the self-inflicted source of their sorrow and pain.\"[Fr. Thomas Hopko, ?Foreword,? in \'\'The Orthodox Church\'\', Sergius Bulgakov (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir\'s Seminary Press, 1988), xiii.]\n\nMoreover, Orthodoxy includes a prevalent tradition of \'\'[[apokatastasis]]\'\', or the restoration of all things in the end. This has been taught most notably by [[Origen]], but also many other Church fathers and Saints, including [[Gregory of Nyssa]], whom [[Maximos the Confessor]] called the \"universal doctor\" and the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] (553 C.E.) not only called him the \"father of fathers\" but also affirmed his orthodoxy while also simultaneously condemning Origen\'s brand of universalism because it taught the restoration back to our pre-existent state, which Orthodoxy doesn\'t teach. It is also a teaching of such eminent Orthodox theologians as [[Olivier Cl?ment]], Metropolitan [[Kallistos Ware]], and Bishop [[Hilarion Alfeyev]].[Andrew P. Klager, \"Orthodox Eschatology and St. Gregory of Nyssa\'s \'\'De vita Moysis\'\': Transfiguration, Cosmic Unity, and Compassion,\" In \'\'Compassionate Eschatology: The Future as Friend\'\', eds. Ted Grimsrud & Michael Hardin, 230-252 (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2011), 251.] Although apokatastasis is not a dogma of the church but instead a [[wikt:theologoumenon#English|theologoumena]], it is no less a teaching of the Orthodox Church than its rejection. As Met. Kallistos Ware explains, \"It is heretical to say that all must be saved, for this is to deny free will; but, it is legitimate to hope that all may be saved,?[Kallistos Ware, The Orthodox Church (New York: Penguin, 1997), 262.] as insisting on torment without end also denies free will.\n\n====The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints====\n{{main|plan of salvation (Latter Day Saints)|Exaltation (Mormonism)|Degrees of glory}}\n[[Joseph F. Smith]] of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] presents an elaborate vision of the Afterlife. It is revealed as the scene of an extensive missionary effort by righteous spirits in paradise to redeem those still in darkness?a spirit prison or \"hell\" where the spirits of the dead remain until judgment. It is divided into two parts: Spirit Prison and Paradise. Together these are also known as the Spirit World (also Abraham\'s Bosom; see Luke 16:19-25). They believe that Christ visited spirit prison (1 Peter 3:18-20) and opened the gate for those who repent to cross over to Paradise. \'\'\"--- what Jesus\' immortal spirit did after His death and before His Resurrection is a mystery to all but the Latter-day Saints ---\" (Elder Spencer J. Condie, Liahona, -Church magazine ? July, 2003) \"- - - unto the wicked he did not go, and among the ungodly and the unrepentant - - his voice was not raised. - - But behold, from among the righteous, He organized His forces and appointed messengers ...\" (D&C 138:20, 30?32). \"Christ opened the doors of hell to missionary work among the dead ...\" (H. Donl Peterson, \"I Have a Question\", Ensign, Apr. 1986, 36?38).\'\' This is similar to the [[Harrowing of Hell]] doctrine of some mainstream Christian faiths.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} Both Spirit Prison and Paradise are temporary according to Latter-day Saint beliefs. After the resurrection, spirits are assigned \"permanently\" to three degrees of heavenly glory, determined by how they lived? Celestial, Terrestrial, and Telestial.(1 Cor 15:44-42; Doctrine and Covenants, Section 76) Sons of Perdition, or those who have known and seen God and deny it, will be sent to the realm of Satan, which is called Outer Darkness, where they shall live in misery and agony forever. (See Doctrine and Covenants, Section 76.)\n\nThe Celestial Kingdom is believed to be a place where we can live eternally with our families. Progression does not end once one has entered the Celestial Kingdom, but it extends eternally. According to True to the Faith, (A handbook on doctrines in the LDS faith) \"The celestial kingdom is the place prepared for those who have ?received the testimony of Jesus? and been ?made perfect through Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, who wrought out this perfect atonement through the shedding of his own blood? (D&C 76:51, 69). To inherit this gift, we must receive the ordinances of salvation, keep the commandments, and repent of our sins.\"[https://www.lds.org/manual/true-to-the-faith/kingdoms-of-glory.p1?lang=eng]\n\n====Jehovah\'s Witnesses====\n[[Jehovah\'s Witnesses]] occasionally use terms such as \"afterlife\"[{{cite journal|journal=The Watchtower|title=Is Gehenna a Place of Fiery Torment?|date=April 1, 2011|page=31|url=http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2011252}}] to refer to any hope for the dead, but they understand [[Ecclesiastes]] 9:5 to preclude belief in an immortal soul.[{{cite book|title=Reasoning From the Scriptures|pages=168?175}}] Individuals judged by God to be wicked, such as in the [[Great Flood]] or at [[Armageddon]], are given no hope of an afterlife. However, they believe that after Armageddon there will be a bodily resurrection of \"both righteous and unrighteous\" dead (but not the \"wicked\"). Survivors of Armageddon and those who are resurrected are then to gradually restore earth to a paradise.[{{cite book|title=Insight on the Scriptures|volume=2|pages=574?576}}] After Armageddon, unrepentant sinners are punished with eternal death (non-existence).\n\n====Seventh-day Adventists====\nThe Seventh-day Adventist Church, teaches that the first death, or death brought about by living on a planet with sinful conditions (sickness, old age, accident, etc.) is a sleep of the soul. Adventists believe that the body + the breath of God = a living soul. Like Jehovah\'s Witnesses, Adventists use key phrases from the Bible, such as \"For the living know that they shall die: but the dead know not any thing, neither have they any more a reward; for the memory of them is forgotten\" (Eccl. 9:5 KJV). Adventists also point to the fact that the wage of sin is death and God alone is [[immortality|immortal]]. Adventists believe God will grant eternal life to the redeemed who are resurrected at Jesus\' second coming. Until then, all those who have died are \"asleep\". When Jesus the Christ, who is the Word and the Bread of Life, comes a second time, the righteous will be raised incorruptible and will be taken in the clouds to meet their Lord. The righteous will live in heaven for a thousand years (the millennium) where they will sit with God in judgment over the unredeemed and the fallen angels. During the time the redeemed are in heaven, the Earth will be devoid of human and animal inhabitation. Only the fallen angels will be left alive. The second resurrection is of the unrighteous, when Jesus brings the New Jerusalem down from heaven to relocate to Earth. Jesus will call to life all those who are unrighteous. Satan and his angels will convince the unrighteous to surround the city, but hell fire and brimstone will fall from heaven and consume them, thus cleansing Earth of all sin. The universe will be then free from sin forever. This is called the second death. On the new earth God will provide an eternal home for all the redeemed and a perfect environment for everlasting life, where Eden will be restored. The great controversy will be ended and sin will be no more. God will reign in perfect harmony forever.(Rom. 6:23; 1 Tim. 6:15, 16; Eccl. 9:5, 6; Ps. 146:3, 4; John 11:11-14; Col. 3:4; 1 Cor. 15:51-54; 1 Thess. 4:13-17; John 5:28, 29; Rev. 20:1-10; Rev. 20; 1 Cor. 6:2, 3; Jer. 4:23-26; Rev. 21:1-5; Mal. 4:1; Eze. 28:18, 19; 2 Peter 3:13; Isa. 35; 65:17-25; Matt. 5:5; Rev. 21:1-7; 22:1-5; 11:15.)[White, E.G. (1858). \'\'The great controversy\'\'. Washington, D.C.: Review and Herald Publishing Association][{{cite web|url=http://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental/index.html |title=The Official Site of the Seventh-day Adventist world church |publisher=Adventist.org |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}]\n\n===Islam===\n{{Main|Barzakh|Akhirah}}\nThe Islamic belief in the afterlife as stated in the [[Qur\'an]] is descriptive. The [[Arabic]] word for Paradise is \'\'[[Jannah]]\'\' and Hell is \'\'[[Jahannam]]\'\'. Their level of comfort while in the grave depends wholly on their level of \'\'[[Iman (concept)|Iman]]\'\' or faith in the one almighty creator or supreme being [[God]] or [[Allah]]. In order for one to achieve proper, firm and healthy Iman one must practice righteous deeds or else his level of Iman chokes and shrinks and eventually can wither away if one does not practice [[Islam]] long enough, hence the depth of practicing Islam is good deeds. One may also acquire \'\'[[Tasbih]]\'\' and recite the names of Allah in such manner as \"SubahannAllah\" or [[Glory (religion)|Glory]] be to Allah over and over again to acquire good deeds.\n\nIslam teaches that the purpose of Man\'s entire creation is to worship the Creator of the Heavens and Earth (Allah) alone that includes being kind to other human beings and life including bugs, and to trees, by not oppressing them. Islam teaches that the life we live on Earth is nothing but a test for us and to determine each individual\'s ultimate abode be it punishment or \'\'Jannat\'\' in the afterlife, which is eternal and everlasting.\n\n\'\'Jannah\'\' and \'\'Jahannam\'\' both have different levels. \'\'Jannah\'\' has seven gates and seven levels. The higher the level the better it is and the happier you are. \'\'Jahannam\'\' possess 7 deep terrible layers. The lower the layer the worse it is. Individuals will arrive at both everlasting homes during [[Judgment Day]], which commences after the Angel [[Israfil]] blows the trumpet the second time. Islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. Muslims believe there will be a day of judgment when all humans will be divided between the eternal destinations of Paradise and Hell.\n\nIn the 20th century, discussions about the afterlife address the interconnection between human action and divine judgment, the need for moral rectitude, and the eternal consequences of human action in this life and world.[{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e61?_hi=2&_pos=1 |title=Afterlife - Oxford Islamic Studies Online |doi=10.1093/0195156498.001.0001 |publisher=Oxfordislamicstudies.com |date=2008-05-06 |accessdate=2014-03-08}}]\n\nA central doctrine of the Qur\'an is the Last Day, on which the world will be destroyed and Allah will raise all people and jinn from the dead to be judged. The Last Day is also called the Day of Standing Up, Day of Separation, Day of Reckoning, Day of Awakening, Day of Judgment, The Encompassing Day or The Hour.\n\nUntil the Day of Judgment, deceased souls remain in their graves awaiting the resurrection. However, they begin to feel immediately a taste of their destiny to come. Those bound for hell will suffer in their graves, while those bound for heaven will be in peace until that time.\n\nThe resurrection that will take place on the Last Day is physical, and is explained by suggesting that God will re-create the decayed body (17:100: \"Could they not see that God who created the heavens and the earth is able to create the like of them\"?).\n\nOn the Last Day, resurrected humans and jinn will be judged by Allah according to their deeds. One\'s eternal destination depends on balance of good to bad deeds in life. They are either granted admission to Paradise, where they will enjoy spiritual and physical pleasures forever, or condemned to Hell to suffer spiritual and physical torment for eternity. The day of judgment is described as passing over Hell on a narrow bridge in order to enter Paradise. Those who fall, weighted by their bad deeds, will remain in Hell forever.\n\n====Ahmadiyya====\n\n[[Ahmadiyya|Ahmadi]] Muslims believe that the afterlife is not material but of a spiritual nature. According to [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]], the founder of [[Ahmadiyya]] sect in Islam, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an \"embryonic soul\" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one\'s own\'s rights over that of other\'s becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and Peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.[{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iU1Yn4sSXEkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=elementary+study+of+islam&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bnk9U8PPJMGm0QXe94HoDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=elementary%20study%20of%20islam&f=false | title=An Elementary Study of Islam | author=Mirza Tahir Ahmad| page=50 |publisher=Islam International Publications |isbn=1-85372-562-5}}]\n\n====Sufi====\nThe Sufi scholar [[Ibn \'Arabi]] defined [[Barzakh#Sufism|Barzakh]] as the intermediate realm or \"isthmus\". It is between the world of corporeal bodies and the world of spirits, and is a means of contact between the two worlds. Without it, there would be no contact between the two and both would cease to exist. He described it as simple and luminous, like the world of spirits, but also able to take on many different forms just like the world of corporeal bodies can. In broader terms Barzakh, ?is anything that separates two things?. It has been called the dream world in which the dreamer is in both life and death.[{{cite book|last=Ibn Al-Arabi|first=Muhyiddin|title=The Universal Tree and The Four Birds|year=2006|publisher=Anqa Publishing|pages=29n,50n, 59, 64?8, 73, 75?8, 82, 102|editor=Angela Jaffray}}]\n\n===Bah?\'? Faith===\n{{Main|Bah?\'? Faith on life after death}}\nThe teachings of the [[Bah?\'? Faith]] state that the nature of the afterlife is beyond the nature of those living, just as an unborn fetus cannot understand the nature of the world outside of the [[womb]]. The [[Bah?\'? literature|Bah?\'? writings]] state that the soul is immortal and after death it will continue to progress until it attains [[God in the Bah?\'? Faith|God\'s presence]]. In Bah?\'? belief, souls in the afterlife will continue to retain their individuality and consciousness and will be able to recognize and communicate spiritually with other souls whom they have made deep profound friendships with, such as their [[Marriage|spouses]].[{{cite encyclopedia|last= Smith|first= Peter |encyclopedia= A concise encyclopedia of the Bah?\'? Faith|title= burial, \"death and afterlife\", evil, evil spirits, sin |year= 2000|publisher=Oneworld Publications|location= Oxford |isbn= 1-85168-184-1|pages= 96?97, 118?119, 135?136, 322?323| ref = harv}}]\n\nThe Bah?\'? scriptures also state there are distinctions between souls in the afterlife, and that souls will recognize the worth of their own deeds and understand the consequences of their actions. It is explained that those souls that have turned toward God will experience gladness, while those who have lived in error will become aware of the opportunities they have lost. Also, in the Baha\'i view, souls will be able to recognize the accomplishments of the souls that have reached the same level as themselves, but not those that have achieved a rank higher than them.[\n\n==Indian religions==\n\n===Hinduism===\n{{unreferenced section|date=November 2014}}\n{{main|Hindu eschatology}}\nThe [[Upanishads]] describe reincarnation (\'\'punarjanma\'\') (see also: [[samsara]]). The [[Bhagavad Gita]], an important Hindu script, talks extensively about the afterlife. Here, the Lord [[Krishna]] says that just as a man discards his old clothes and wears new ones; similarly the soul discards the old body and takes on a new one. In Hinduism, the belief is that the body is but a shell, the soul inside is immutable and indestructible and takes on different lives in a cycle of birth and death. The end of this cycle is called \"Mukti\" (Sanskrit: ??????) and staying finally with supreme God forever; is \"[[Moksha]]\" (Sanskrit: ?????) or salvation.\n\nThe [[Garuda Purana]] deals solely with what happens to a person after death. The God of Death [[Yama]] sends his representatives to collect the soul from a person\'s body whenever he is due for death and they take the soul to Yama. A record of each person\'s timings & deeds performed by him is kept in a ledger by Yama\'s assistant, Chitragupta.\n\nAccording to the Garuda Purana, a soul after leaving the body travels through a very long and dark tunnel towards the South. This is why an oil lamp is lit and kept beside the head of the corpse, to light the dark tunnel and allow the soul to travel comfortably.\n\nThe soul, called \"[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]\" leaves the body and reincarnates itself according to the deeds or Karma performed by one in last birth. Rebirth would be in form of animals or other lower creatures if one performed bad Karmas and in human form in a good family with joyous lifetime if the person was good in last birth. In between the two births a human is also required to either face punishments for bad Karmas in \"[[Naraka (Hinduism)|naraka]]\" or hell or enjoy for the good karmas in \"svarga\" or heaven for good deeds. Whenever his or her punishments or rewards are over he or she is sent back to earth, also known as \"Mrutyulok\" or human world. A person stays with the God or ultimate power when he discharges only & only yajna karma (means work done for satisfaction of supreme lord only) in last birth and the same is called as \"Moksha\" or \"Nirvana\", which is the ultimate goal of a self realised soul. Atma moves with \"Parmatma\" or the greatest soul. According to Bhagavad Gita an \"Atma\" or soul never dies, what dies is the body only made of five elements?Earth, Water, Fire, Air, and Sky. Soul is believed to be indestructible. None of the five elements can harm or influence it. Hinduism through Garuda Purana also describes in detail various types of \"Narkas\" or Hells where a person after death is punished for his bad Karmas and dealt with accordingly.\n\nHindus also believe in \'Karma\'. \'Karma\' is the accumulated sums of one\'s good or bad deeds. Satkarma means good deeds, vikarma means bad deeds. According to [[Hinduism]] the basic concept of Karma is \'As you sow, you shall reap\'. So, if a person has lived a good life, they will be rewarded in the afterlife. Similarly their sum of bad deeds will be mirrored in their next life. Good \'Karma\' brings good rewards and bad \'karmas\' lead to bad results. There is no judgment here. People accumulate karma through their actions and even thoughts. In Bhagavad Gita when Arjuna hesitates to kill his kith and kin the lord reprimands him saying thus \"Do you believe that you are the doer of the action. No. You are merely an instrument in MY hands. Do you believe that the people in front of you are living? Dear Arjuna, they are already dead. As a \'\'kshatriya\'\' (warrior) it is your duty to protect your people and land. If you fail to do your duty, then you are not adhering to dharmic principles.\"\n\n===Buddhism===\n{{unreferenced section|date=November 2014}}\n{{main|Buddhist eschatology}}\nBuddhists maintain that [[rebirth (Buddhism)|rebirth]] takes place without an unchanging [[Atman (Buddhism)|self]] or soul passing from one form to another.][{{cite book |last1=Becker |first1=Carl B. |title=Breaking the circle: death and the afterlife in Buddhism |date=1993 |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |location=Carbondale |isbn=0-585-03949-6 |page=viii |quote=Buddhists believe in karma and rebirth, and yet they deny the existence of permanent souls.}}] The type of rebirth will be conditioned by the moral tone of the person\'s actions (kamma or [[karma]]). For example, if a person has committed harmful actions of body, speech and mind based on greed, hatred and delusion, rebirth in a lower realm, i.e. an animal, a [[ghost]] or a hell realm, is to be expected. On the other hand, where a person has performed skillful actions based on generosity, loving-kindness ([[metta]]), compassion and wisdom, rebirth in a happy realm, i.e. human or one of the many heavenly realms, can be expected.\n\nYet the mechanism of rebirth with kamma is not deterministic. It depends on various levels of kamma. The most important moment that determines where a person is reborn into is the last thought moment. At that moment, heavy kamma would ripen if there were performed, if not then near death kamma, if not then habitual kamma, finally if none of the above happened, then residual kamma from previous actions can ripen. According to Theravada Buddhism, there are 31 realms of existence that one can be reborn into.\n\nPure Land Buddhism of Mahayana believes in a special place apart from the 31 planes of existence called Pure Land. It is believed that each Buddha has their own pure land, created out of their merits for the sake of sentient beings who recall them mindfully to be able to be reborn in their pure land and train to become a Buddha there. Thus the main practice of pure land Buddhism is to chant a Buddha\'s name.\n\nIn [[Tibetan Buddhism]] the [[Bardo Thodol|Tibetan Book of the Dead]] explains the intermediate state of humans between death and reincarnation. The deceased will find the bright light of wisdom, which shows a straightforward path to move upward and leave the cycle of reincarnation. There are various reasons why the deceased do not follow that light. Some had no briefing about the intermediate state in the former life. Others only used to follow their basic instincts like animals. And some have fear, which results from foul deeds in the former life or from insistent haughtiness. In the intermediate state the awareness is very flexible, so it is important to be virtuous, adopt a positive attitude, and avoid negative ideas. Ideas which are rising from subconsciousness can cause extreme tempers and cowing visions. In this situation they have to understand, that these manifestations are just reflections of the inner thoughts. No one can really hurt them, because they have no more material body. The deceased get help from different [[Buddhahood|Buddha]]s who show them the path to the bright light. The ones who do not follow the path after all will get hints for a better reincarnation. They have to release the things and beings on which or whom they still hang from the life before. It is recommended to choose a family where the parents trust in the [[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dharma]] and to reincarnate with the will to care for the welfare of all beings.\n\n\"Life is cosmic energy of the universe and after death it merges in universe again and as the time comes to find the suitable place for the entity died in the life condition it gets born. There are 10 life states of any life: Hell, hunger, anger, animality, rapture, humanity, learning, realization, bodhisatva and buddhahood. The life dies in which life condition it reborn in the same life condition.\"\n\n===Sikhism===\n{{unreferenced section|date=November 2014}}\n[[Sikhism]] has a very strong belief in after life. They believe that the soul belongs to the spiritual universe which has its origins in God. However it\'s been a matter of great debate amongst the Sikhs about Sikhism\'s belief in afterlife. Many believe that Sikhism endorses afterlife and the concept of reward and punishment as there are verses given in Guru Granth sahib, but a large number of Sikhs believe otherwise and treat those verses as metaphorical or poetic.\n\nBut if one analyse the Sikh Scriptures carefully, one may find that on many occasions Afterlife, existence of heaven and hell are mentioned succinctly in Guru Granth Sahib and in Dasam granth so from that it can been concluded that Sikhism does believe in the existence of heaven and hell, however, heaven and hell are created to reward and punish, one will then take birth again until one merges in God. According to the Sikh scriptures, the human form is the closet form to God and the best opportunity for a human being attain salvation and merge back with God. Sikh Gurus said that nothing dies, nothing is born, everything is ever present, and it just changes forms. That is a higher philosophy. It?s like standing in front of a wardrobe, you pick up a dress and wear it and then you discard it. You wear another one. You?re just changing one form into another one. Actually, your soul is never born and never dies. Your soul is a part of God and hence lives forever.[http://www.realsikhism.com/index.php?subaction=showfull&id=1248308791&ucat=7]\n\n==Neopaganism==\n\n===Wicca===\nThe Wiccan afterlife is most commonly described as [[The Summerland]]. Here, souls rest, recuperate from life, and reflect on the experiences they had during their lives. After a period of rest, the souls are reincarnated, and the memory of their previous lives is erased. Many Wiccans see The Summerland as a place to reflect on their life actions. It is not a place of reward, but rather the end of a life journey at an end point of incarnations.[Solitary Wicca For Life: Complete Guide to Mastering the Craft on Your Own - Page 162, Arin Murphy-Hiscock - 2005]\n\n==Others==\n\n===Shinto===\n{{further|Shinto#Afterlife}}\n\n===Unitarian Universalism===\nSome [[Unitarian Universalist]]s believe in [[universalism]]: that all souls will ultimately be saved and that there are no torments of hell.[{{cite web|last1=Bond|first1=Jon|url=http://en.allexperts.com/q/Unitarians-945/unitarian-view-afterlife.htm |title=Unitarians: unitarian view of afterlife, unitarian universalist association uua, unitarian universalist association |publisher=En.allexperts.com |date=2004-06-13 |accessdate=2014-03-08}}] Unitarian Universalists differ widely in their theology hence there is no exact same stance on the issue.[The A to Z of Unitarian Universalism - Page 147, Mark W. Harris - 2009] Although Unitarians historically believed in a literal hell, and Universalists historically believed that everyone goes to heaven, modern Unitarian Universalists can be categorized into those believing in a heaven, reincarnation and oblivion. Most Unitarian Universalists believe that heaven and hell are symbolic places of consciousness and the faith is largely focused on the worldly life rather than any possible afterlife.[Searching for Spiritual Unity ... Can There Be Common Ground? - Page 582, Robyn E. Lebron - 2012]\n\n===Spiritualism===\n{{unreferenced section|date=May 2014}}\nIn [[spiritualism]], the afterlife realm, known as the \"plane of Venus\", was described by [[Edgar Cayce]]. Venus, as an afterlife realm, is not a reference to the planet. It is a reference to the afterlife realm for which the planet Venus physically represents. Venus is the afterlife realm where love is dominant. Cayce says of Venus,{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}\n{{quote|In Venus we find the lovely becoming the expressions in activities in which there is the beauty seen in love, in companionship, in association, in music, in art, in all the things that bespeak of the loveliness even of nature and material things, rather than the expression of same in the earthly form or manner.}}\n\nAccording to Cayce, this afterlife realm can be referred to as the realm of love. Sympathy, the alleviating of hardships, the seeking of love, beauty and song are some influences that people from that realm possess. Beauty, either natural or man-made, will move these individuals; furthermore, there is a desire to beautify the home. There is a strong attraction to the opposite sex. This dimension is an indescribably lovely existence. Here one must leave behind all rigid intellectual structures and dogmas, be they scientific, religious, or philosophical. An infinite variety of new sounds, colors and feelings are experienced here and souls find a much wider freedom to function with highly energized intellect and spirit. If, in this dimension, the soul becomes free from the Earth pull, it is qualified to experience cosmic ranges beyond Earth\'s confines.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}\n\n===Zoroastrianism===\n{{unreferenced section|date=December 2014}}\n{{main|Frashokereti}}\nZoroastrianism states that the \'\'urvan\'\', the disembodied spirit, lingers on earth for three days before departing downward to the kingdom of the dead that is ruled by Yima. For the three days that it rests on Earth, righteous souls sit at the head of their body, chanting the [[Gathas|Ustavaiti Gathas]] with joy, while a wicked person sits at the feet of the corpse, wails and recites the [[Yasna]]. Zoroastrianism states that for the righteous souls, a beautiful maiden, which is the personification of the soul\'s good thoughts, words and deeds, appears. For a wicked person, a very old, ugly, naked hag appears. After three nights, the soul of the wicked is taken by the demon [[Vizaresa]] (V?zar??a), to Chinvat bridge, and is made to go to darkness ([[hell]]).\n\n[[Jamshid|Yima]] is believed to have been the first [[king]] on earth to rule, as well as the first man to die. Inside of Yima\'s realm, the [[spirits]] live a shadowy existence, and are dependent on their own descendants which are still living on Earth. Their descendants are to satisfy their hunger and clothe them, through rituals done on earth.\n\nRituals which are done on the first three days are vital and important, as they protect the soul from evil powers and give it strength to reach the underworld. After three days, the soul crosses [[Chinvat bridge]] which is the [[Final Judgment]] of the soul. Rashnu and [[Sraosha]] are present at the final judgment. The list is expanded sometimes, and include [[Bahman|Vahman]] and [[Ahura Mazda|Ormazd]]. [[Rashnu]] is the [[yazata]] who holds the scales of justice. If the good deeds of the person outweigh the bad, the soul is worthy of paradise. If the bad deeds outweigh the good, the bridge narrows down to the width of a blade-edge, and a horrid hag pulls the soul in her arms, and takes it down to hell with her.\n\n[[Misvan Gatu]] is the \'place of the mixed ones\' where the souls lead a gray existence, lacking both joy and sorrow. A soul goes here if his/her good deeds and bad deeds are equal, and Rashnu\'s scale is equal.\n\n==Parapsychology==\n{{Main|Parapsychology}}\n{{See also|Near-death studies|Near death experience}}\n\nThe [[Society for Psychical Research]] was founded in 1882 with the express intention of investigating phenomena relating to Spiritualism and the afterlife. Its members continue to conduct scientific research on the paranormal to this day. Some of the earliest attempts to apply [[scientific method]]s to the study of phenomena relating to an afterlife were conducted by this organization. Its earliest members included noted scientists like [[William Crookes]], and philosophers such as [[Henry Sidgwick]] and [[William James]].\n\nParapsychological investigation of the afterlife includes the study of [[haunting]], [[apparitional experience|apparitions]] of the deceased, instrumental trans-communication, [[electronic voice phenomenon|electronic voice phenomena]], and [[mediumship]].[David Fontana (2005): Is there an afterlife. A comprehensive overview of the evidence.] But also the study of the near death experience. Scientists who have worked in this area include [[Raymond Moody]], [[Susan Blackmore]], [[Charles Tart]], [[William James]], [[Ian Stevenson]], [[Michael Persinger]], [[Pim van Lommel]] and [[Penny Sartori]] among others.[{{cite web|url=http://profezie3m.altervista.org/archivio/TheLancet_NDE.htm |title=Near-death experience in survivors of cardiac arrest: a prospective study in the Netherlands |publisher=Profezie3m.altervista.org |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}][{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/7463606.stm | accessdate = 6 August 2008 | work=BBC News | title=Nurse writes book on near-death | date=2008-06-19}}]\n\nA study conducted in 1901 by physician [[Duncan MacDougall (doctor)|Duncan MacDougall]] sought to measure the weight lost by a human when the [[soul]] \"departed the body\" upon death.[{{cite book | last = Roach | first = Mary | title = Spook ? Science Tackles the Afterlife | publisher = W. W. Norton & Co. | year = 2005 | isbn = 0-393-05962-6}}] MacDougall weighed dying patients in an attempt to prove that the soul was material, tangible and thus measurable. Although MacDougall\'s results varied considerably from \"21 grams\", for some people this figure has become synonymous with the measure of a soul\'s mass.[[http://www.snopes.com/religion/soulweight.asp Urban Legends] - Reference Page (Soul man).] The title of the 2003 movie \'\'[[21 Grams]]\'\' is a reference to MacDougall\'s findings. His results have never been reproduced, and are generally regarded either as meaningless or considered to have had little if any scientific merit.[{{cite book|last=Park|first=Robert Ezra|title=Superstition: Belief in the Age of Science|page=90|year=2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, N.J|isbn=0-691-14597-0}}]\n\n[[Frank Tipler]] has argued that [[physics]] can explain immortality, though such arguments are not [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]] and thus do not qualify, in [[Karl Popper]]\'s views, as science.[{{cite book | last = Tipler | first = Franl, J. | title = The Physics of Immortality ? Modern Cosmology, God and the Resurrection of the Dead | publisher = Anchor | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-385-46799-0}}]\n\nAfter 25 years of parapsychological research, [[Susan Blackmore]] came to the conclusion that there is no [[empirical evidence]] for an afterlife.[{{cite web|url=http://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Chapters/Kurtz.htm |title=Skeptical Odysseys: Personal Accounts by the World\'s Leading Paranormal Inquirers pp 85?94 |publisher=Susanblackmore.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2014-03-08}}][{{cite book | last = Kurtz | first = Paul | title = Skeptical Odysseys: Personal Accounts by the World\'s Leading Paranormal Inquirers | publisher = Prometheus Books | year = 2001 | isbn = 1-57392-884-4}}]\n\n==Philosophy==\n\n===Modern philosophy===\nThere is still the position, based on the philosophical question of [[personal identity]], termed [[open individualism]], and in some ways similar to the old belief of [[monopsychism]], that concludes that individual existence is illusory, and our consciousness continues existing after death in other conscious beings. Positions regarding existence after death were supported by some notable physicists such as [[Erwin Schr?dinger]] and [[Freeman Dyson]].[{{cite book | last = Kolak | first = Daniel | title = I Am You: The Metaphysical Foundations for Global Ethics | publisher = Springer | year = 2005 | isbn = 1-4020-2999-3}}]\n\nCertain problems arise with the idea of a particular person continuing after death. [[Peter van Inwagen]], in his argument regarding resurrection, notes that the materialist must have some sort of physical continuity.[{{cite web|url=http://philosophy.nd.edu/people/all/profiles/van-inwagen-peter/documents/Resurrection.doc|title=I Look for the Resurrection of the Dead and the Life of the World to Come |author=Peter van Inwagen |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070610012631/http://philosophy.nd.edu/people/all/profiles/van-inwagen-peter/documents/Resurrection.doc |archivedate=2007-06-10}}] [[John Hick]] also raises some questions regarding personal identity in his book, \'\'Death and Eternal Life\'\' using an example of a person ceasing to exist in one place while an exact replica appears in another. If the replica had all the same experiences, traits, and physical appearances of the first person, we would all attribute the same identity to the second, according to Hick.\n\n===Process philosophy===\n\nIn the [[panentheistic]] model of [[process philosophy]] and theology the writers [[Alfred North Whitehead]] and [[Charles Hartshorne]] rejected that the universe was made of [[Matter|substance]], instead reality is composed of living experiences (occasions of experience). According to Hartshorne people do not experience subjective (or personal) immortality in the afterlife, but they do have objective immortality because their experiences live on forever in [[God]], who contains all that was. However other process philosophers such as [[David Ray Griffin]] have written that people may have subjective experience after death.[Charles Hartshorne, Omnipotence and Other Theological Mistakes (Albany: State University of New York, 1984) p. 32?36][David Griffin, \"The Possibility of Subjective Immortality in Whitehead\'s Philosophy,\" in The Modern Schoolman, LIII, November. 1975, pp. 39?51.][[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=3040&C=2598 What Is Process Theology? by Robert B. Mellert]][[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=2736&C=2480 A Whiteheadian Conception of Immortality by Forrest Wood, Jr.]]\n\n==Science==\n{{Main|Consciousness after death}}\nThe [[scientific community]] demands much greater [[skepticism]] than is found among religions regarding the belief in the continuity of consciousness after death. Regarding the [[mind?body problem]], most neuroscientists take a [[physicalism|physicalist]] position according to which consciousness derives from and/or is reducible to physical phenomena such as neuronal activity occurring in the brain.[James H. Schwartz. \'\'Appendix D: Consciousness and the Neurobiology of the Twenty-First Century\'\'. In Kandel, ER; Schwartz JH; Jessell TM. (2000). \'\'Principles of Neural Science, 4th Edition\'\'.][[[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]]. [http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1580394,00.html \"The Brain: The Mystery of Consciousness\"]. Time. Monday, January 29, 2007.] The implication of this premise is that once the brain stops functioning at [[brain death]], consciousness fails to survive and [[eternal oblivion|ceases to exist]].[{{cite journal|author=Bernat JL|date=8 Apr 2006|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68508-5|issue=9517|journal=Lancet|pages=1181?1192|pmid=16616561|title=Chronic disorders of consciousness|volume=367}}][[[Steven Laureys|Laureys, Steven]]; Tononi, Giulio. (2009). \'\'The Neurology of Consciousness: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuropathology\'\'. Academic Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-12-374168-4 \"In brain death there is irreversible cessation of all functions of the brain including the brainstem. Consciousness is, therefore, permanently lost in brain death.\"]\n\nPsychological proposals for the origin of a belief in an afterlife include cognitive disposition, cultural learning, and as an intuitive religious idea.[{{cite journal|last1=Pereira|first1=Vera|last2=Fa?sca|first2=Lu?s|last3=de S?-Saraiva|first3=Rodrigo|title=Immortality of the Soul as an Intuitive Idea: Towards a Psychological Explanation of the Origins of Afterlife Beliefs|journal=Journal of Cognition and Culture|date=1 January 2012|volume=12|issue=1|page=121|doi=10.1163/156853712X633956}}] In one study, children were able to recognize the ending of physical, mental, and perceptual activity in death, but were hesitant to conclude the ending of will, self, or emotion in death.[{{cite journal|last1=Misailidi|first1=Plousia|last2=Kornilaki|first2=Ekaterina N|title=Development of Afterlife Beliefs in Childhood: Relationship to Parent Beliefs and Testimony|journal=Merrill-Palmer Quarterly|date=April 2015|volume=61|issue=2|pages=290?318|issn=0272-930X}}]\n\n== Popular culture ==\n\n=== Movies ===\n* \'\'[[Ghost (1990 film)|Ghost]]\'\' with [[Patrick Swayze]], [[Demi Moore]], and [[Whoopi Goldberg]]\n* \'\'[[Flatliners]]\'\' with [[Julia Roberts]], [[Kiefer Sutherland]] and [[Kevin Bacon]]\n* \'\'[[Ghost Whisperer]]\'\'\n* \'\'[[Hereafter (film)|Hereafter]]\'\' by [[Clint Eastwood]]\n* \'\'[[What Dreams May Come (film)|What Dreams May Come]]\'\' with [[Robin Williams]], [[Cuba Gooding Jr.]], and [[Annabella Sciorra]]\n* \'\'[[The Sixth Sense]]\'\' with [[Bruce Willis]]\n\n==See also==\n{{Div col|cols=3}}\n* [[Akhirah]]\n* [[Allegory of the long spoons]]\n* [[Bardo]]\n* [[Brig of Dread]] (Bridge of Dread)\n* [[Cognitivism (psychology)|Cognitivism]]\n* [[Cryonics]]\n* [[Dimethyltryptamine]]\n* [[Empiricism]]\n* [[Epistemology]]\n* [[Exaltation (Mormonism)]]\n* [[Fate of the unlearned]]\n* [[Logical positivism]]\n* [[Mictlan]]\n* [[Omega Point]]\n* [[Parapsychology]]\n* [[Phowa]]\n* [[Pre-existence]]\n* [[Rebecca Hensler]]\n* [[Soul retrieval]]\n* [[Suspended animation]]\n* [[Undead]]\n{{Div col end}}\n\n==References==\n\n===Notes===\n{{reflist|30em}}\n\n===Further reading===\n* \'\'Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions\'\' edited by Hiroshi Obayashi, Praeger, 1991.\n* \'\'Beyond Death: Theological and Philosophical Reflections on Life after Death\'\' edited by [[Dan Cohn-Sherbok]] and Christopher Lewis, Pelgrave-MacMillan, 1995.\n* \'\'The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection\'\' by Jane Idelman Smith and Yazbeck Haddad, Oxford UP, 2002.\n* \'\'Life After Death: A History of the Afterlife in Western Religion\'\' by [[Alan F. Segal]], Doubleday, 2004.\n* \'\'Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul\'\' by John J. McGraw, Aegis Press, 2004.\n* \'\'Beyond the Threshold: Afterlife Beliefs and Experiences in World Religions\'\' by Christopher M. Moreman, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008.\n* \'\'Is there an afterlife: a comprehensive overview of the evidence\'\' by David Fontana, O Books 2005.\n* \'\'Death and the Afterlife\'\', by Robert A. Morey. Minneapolis, Minn.: Bethany House Publishers, 1984. 315 p. ISBN 0-87123-433-5\n* \'\'Conceptions of the Afterlife in Early Civilizations: Universalism, Constructivism and Near-Death Experience\'\' by Gregory Shushan, New York & London, Continuum, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8264-4073-0.\n* \'\'The Myth of an Afterlife: The Case against Life After Death\'\' edited by [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]] and Keith Augustine, Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. ISBN 978-0-8108-8677-3.\n\n==External links==\n{{Commons category|Afterlife}}\n{{wikiquote|Afterlife}}\n{{Wiktionary|afterlife|hereafter}} \n{{wikiversity|Afterlife}}\n* [http://www.lifeafterdeaths.org/ Islamic view on life after death]\n* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a12.htm Catholic view on life after death]\n* [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20070419_un-baptised-infants_en.html Catholic opinion on the idea of limbo]\n* Stewart Salmond?[https://archive.org/details/christiandoctri04salmgoog Christian Doctrine of Immortality]\n* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-76 Dictionary of the History of Ideas: \'\'Death and Immortality\'\']\n* {{sep entry|afterlife|Afterlife|William Hasker}}\n* {{Gutenberg|no=19082|name=The Destiny of the Soul: A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life}} (Extensive 1878 text by William Rounseville Alger)\n* [http://www.swedenborgdigitallibrary.org/contets/HH.html Online version] of Swedenborg\'s \'\'Heaven and Hell\'\' (Swedenborg Foundation 1949, new translation 2002)\n* [http://smallcanonsearch.com/read.php?book=hh§ion=1 Online searchable copy] of Swedenborg\'s \'\'Heaven and Hell\'\' also known as the underworld in Ancient Greece\n* [http://Academy%20for%20Spiritual%20and%20Consciousness%20Studies Academy for Spiritual and Consciousness Studies]\n{{Navboxes\n|title=Articles Related to an Afterlife\n|list=\n{{philosophy of religion}}\n{{Heaven}}\n{{Hell}}\n{{Death}}\n{{Theology}}\n{{Philosophy topics}}\n}}\n\n[[Category:Afterlife| ]]\n[[Category:Near-death experiences]]\n[[Category:Religious belief and doctrine]]\n[[Category:Philosophy of religion]]'
'Admiral_Doenitz' '#REDIRECT [[Karl D?nitz]]'
'Astrometry' '[[Image:Interferometric astrometry.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Illustration of the use of [[interferometry]] in the optical wavelength range to determine precise positions of stars. \'\'Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech\'\']]\n\n\'\'\'Astrometry\'\'\' is the branch of [[astronomy]] that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of [[star]]s and other [[Astronomical object|celestial bodies]]. The information obtained by astrometric measurements provides information on the [[kinematics]] and physical origin of the [[Solar System]] and our [[galaxy]], the [[Milky Way]].\n\n==History==\n[[File:Thousandau1 space probe.jpg|thumb|Concept art for the TAU spacecraft, a 1980s era study which would have used an interstellar precursor probe to expand the baseline for calculating stellar parallax in support of Astrometry]]\nThe history of astrometry is linked to the history of [[star catalogue]]s, which gave astronomers reference points for objects in the sky so they could track their movements. This can be dated back to [[Hipparchus]], who around 190 BC used the catalogue of his predecessors [[Timocharis]] and [[Aristillus]] to discover Earth\'s [[precession]]. In doing so, he also developed the brightness scale still in use today.[Walter, Hans G. (2000).] Hipparchus compiled a catalogue with at least 850 stars and their positions.[{{cite book |title=Star maps: history, artistry, and cartography |first=Nick |last=Kanas |publisher=Springer |date=2007 |page=109 |isbn=0-387-71668-8}}] Hipparchus\'s successor, [[Ptolemy]], included a catalogue of 1,022 stars in his work the \'\'[[Almagest]]\'\', giving their location, coordinates, and brightness.[p. 110, Kanas 2007.]\n\nIn the 10th century, [[Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi]] carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]]s and [[star color]], and gave drawings for each constellation, in his \'\'[[Book of Fixed Stars]]\'\'. [[Ibn Yunus]] observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun\'s position for many years using a large [[astrolabe]] with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres. His observations on [[eclipse]]s were still used centuries later in [[Simon Newcomb]]\'s investigations on the motion of the Moon, while his other observations inspired [[Laplace]]\'s \'\'Obliquity of the Ecliptic\'\' and \'\'Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn\'\'.{{Clarify|date=August 2009}}[[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1895AJ.....15..113L Great Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn]] In the 15th century, the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] astronomer [[Ulugh Beg]] compiled the \'\'[[Zij-i-Sultani]]\'\', in which he catalogued 1,019 stars. Like the earlier catalogs of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, Ulugh Beg\'s catalogue is estimated to have been precise to within approximately 20 [[minutes of arc]].[{{cite book |chapter=Astrometry |title=History of astronomy: an encyclopedia |first=John |last=Lankford |publisher=Taylor & Francis |date=1997 |page=49 |isbn=0-8153-0322-X}}]\n\nIn the 16th century, [[Tycho Brahe]] used improved instruments, including large [[mural instrument]]s, to measure star positions more accurately than previously, with a precision of 15?35 [[Minute of arc#Symbols and abbreviations|arcsec]].[{{cite book |title=Fundamentals of Astrometry |first1=Jean |last1=Kovalevsky |first2=P. Kenneth |last2=Seidelmann |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2004 |pages=2?3 |isbn=0-521-64216-7}}] [[Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma\'ruf|Taqi al-Din]] measured the [[right ascension]] of the stars at the [[Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din]] using the \"observational clock\" he invented.[{{cite encyclopedia | first = Sevim | last = Tekeli | title = Taqi al-Din | date = 1997 | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures | publisher = [[Kluwer Academic Publishers]] | isbn = 0-7923-4066-3 | url = http://www.springer.com/philosophy/philosophy+of+sciences/book/978-1-4020-4425-0 }}] When [[telescope]]s became commonplace, [[setting circles]] sped measurements\n\n[[James Bradley]] first tried to measure [[stellar parallax]]es in 1729. The stellar movement proved too insignificant for his [[telescope]], but he instead discovered the [[aberration of light]] and the [[nutation]] of the Earth\'s axis. His cataloguing of 3222 stars was refined in 1807 by [[Friedrich Bessel]], the father of modern astrometry. He made the first measurement of stellar parallax: 0.3 [[Minute of arc#Symbols and abbreviations|arcsec]] for the [[binary star]] [[61 Cygni]].\n\nBeing very difficult to measure, only about 60 stellar parallaxes had been obtained by the end of the 19th century, mostly by use of the [[filar micrometer]]. [[Astrograph]]s using astronomical [[photographic plate]]s sped the process in the early 20th century. Automated plate-measuring machines[[http://cdsweb.cern.ch/record/1107461 CERN paper on plate measuring machine] USNO StarScan] and more sophisticated computer technology of the 1960s allowed more efficient compilation of [[star catalogue]]s. In the 1980s, [[charge-coupled device]]s (CCDs) replaced photographic plates and reduced optical uncertainties to one milliarcsecond. This technology made astrometry less expensive, opening the field to an amateur audience.\n\nIn 1989, the [[European Space Agency]]\'s [[Hipparcos]] satellite took astrometry into orbit, where it could be less affected by mechanical forces of the Earth and optical distortions from its atmosphere. Operated from 1989 to 1993, Hipparcos measured large and small angles on the sky with much greater precision than any previous optical telescopes. During its 4-year run, the positions, parallaxes, and [[proper motions]] of 118,218 stars were determined with an unprecedented degree of accuracy. A new \"[[Hipparcos Catalogue|Tycho catalog]]\" drew together a database of 1,058,332 to within 20-30 [[Minute of arc#Symbols and abbreviations|mas]] (milliarcseconds). Additional catalogues were compiled for the 23,882 double/multiple stars and 11,597 [[variable star]]s also analyzed during the Hipparcos mission.[{{cite web\n | author=Staff | date=1 June 2007\n | url=http://www.rssd.esa.int/index.php?project=HIPPARCOS\n | title=The Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission\n | publisher=European Space Agency\n | accessdate=2007-12-06 }}]\n\nToday, the catalogue most often used is [[Star catalogue#USNO-B1.0|USNO-B1.0]], an all-sky catalogue that tracks proper motions, positions, magnitudes and other characteristics for over one billion stellar objects. During the past 50 years, 7,435 [[Schmidt camera]] plates were used to complete several sky surveys that make the data in USNO-B1.0 accurate to within 0.2 arcsec.[Kovalevsky, Jean (1995).]\n\n==Applications==\n[[Image:orbit3.gif|thumb|right|200px|Diagram showing how a smaller object (such as an [[extrasolar planet]]) orbiting a larger object (such as a [[star]]) could produce changes in position and velocity of the latter as they orbit their common [[center of mass]] (red cross).]]\n[[Image:Solar system barycenter.svg|thumb|right|200px|Motion of [[Barycentric coordinates (astronomy)|barycenter]] of solar system relative to the Sun.]]\nApart from the fundamental function of providing [[astronomer]]s with a [[Frame of reference|reference frame]] to report their observations in, astrometry is also fundamental for fields like [[celestial mechanics]], [[stellar dynamics]] and [[galactic astronomy]]. In [[observational astronomy]], astrometric techniques help identify stellar objects by their unique motions. It is instrumental for keeping time, in that [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is basically the [[International Atomic Time|atomic time]] synchronized to [[Earth]]\'s rotation by means of exact observations. Astrometry is an important step in the [[cosmic distance ladder]] because it establishes [[parallax]] distance estimates for stars in the [[Milky Way]].\n\nAstrometry has also been used to support claims of [[Methods of detecting extrasolar planets#Astrometry|extrasolar planet detection]] by measuring the displacement the proposed planets cause in their parent star\'s apparent position on the sky, due to their mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system. Although, as of 2009, none of the extrasolar planets detected by ground-based astrometry has been verified in subsequent studies, astrometry is expected to be more accurate in space missions that are not affected by the distorting effects of the Earth\'s atmosphere.[Nature 462, 705 (2009) 8 December 2009 {{doi|10.1038/462705a}}] NASA\'s planned [[Space Interferometry Mission]] ([[SIM PlanetQuest]]) (now cancelled) was to utilize astrometric techniques to detect [[terrestrial planet]]s orbiting 200 or so of the nearest [[Solar analog|solar-type stars]], and the European Space Agency\'s [[Gaia Mission]], launched in 2013, which will be applying astrometric techniques in its stellar census.[[http://www.esa.int/esaSC/120377_index_0_m.html] ESA - Space Science - Gaia overview]\n\nAstrometric measurements are used by [[astrophysicist]]s to constrain certain models in [[celestial mechanics]]. By measuring the velocities of [[pulsar]]s, it is possible to put a limit on the [[asymmetry]] of [[supernova]] explosions. Also, astrometric results are used to determine the distribution of [[dark matter]] in the galaxy.\n\nAstronomers use astrometric techniques for the tracking of [[near-Earth objects]]. Astrometry is responsible for the detection of many record-breaking Solar System objects. To find such objects astrometrically, astronomers use telescopes to survey the sky and large-area cameras to take pictures at various determined intervals. By studying these images, they can detect Solar System objects by their movements relative to the background stars, which remain fixed. Once a movement per unit time is observed, astronomers compensate for the parallax caused by Earth?s motion during this time and the heliocentric distance to this object is calculated. Using this distance and other photographs, more information about the object, including its [[orbital elements]], can be obtained.[{{cite web\n | first=Chadwick | last=Trujillo | author2=Rabinowitz, David\n | date=1 June 2007\n | url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/%7Embrown/papers/ps/sedna.pdf\n | format=PDF\n | title=Discovery of a candidate inner Oort cloud planetoid\n | publisher=European Space Agency\n | accessdate=2007-12-06 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20071026202421/http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/papers/ps/sedna.pdf| archivedate= 26 October 2007 | deadurl= no}}]\n\n[[50000 Quaoar]] and [[90377 Sedna]] are two Solar System objects discovered in this way by [[Michael E. Brown]] and others at Caltech using the [[Palomar Observatory]]\'s [[Samuel Oschin telescope]] of {{convert|48|in|m}} and the Palomar-Quest large-area CCD camera. The ability of astronomers to track the positions and movements of such celestial bodies is crucial to the understanding of the Solar System and its interrelated past, present, and future with others in the Universe.[{{cite web\n | first=Robert Roy | last=Britt\n | date=7 October 2002\n | url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/quaoar_discovery_021007.html\n | title=Discovery: Largest Solar System Object Since Pluto\n | publisher=SPACE.com | accessdate=2007-12-06\n}}][{{cite web\n | first=Whitney | last=Clavin\n | date=15 May 2004\n | url=http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/planet_like_body.html\n | title=Planet-Like Body Discovered at Fringes of Our Solar System\n | publisher=NASA | accessdate=2007-12-06 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20071130032242/http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/planet_like_body.html| archivedate= 30 November 2007 | deadurl= no}}]\n\n== Statistics ==\n\nA fundamental aspect of astrometry is error correction. Various factors introduce errors into the measurement of stellar positions, including atmospheric conditions, imperfections in the instruments and errors by the observer or the measuring instruments. Many of these errors can be reduced by various techniques, such as through instrument improvements and compensations to the data. The results are then [[Error analysis (mathematics)|analyzed]] using [[statistics|statistical methods]] to compute data estimates and error ranges.\n\n== Computer programs ==\n* [http://www.xparallax.com/ XParallax viu (Free application for Windows)]\n* [http://www.astrometrica.at/ Astrometrica (Application for Windows)]\n* [http://astrometry.net/ Astrometry.net (Online blind astrometry)]\n\n== In fiction ==\n\n* In \'\'[[Star Trek: Voyager]]\'\', the \'\'\'Astrometrics\'\'\' lab is the [[set (drama)|set]] for various [[scene (fiction)|scene]]s.\n* In [[Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)]] an Astrometrics lab is stated in dialogue multiple times.\n\n== See also ==\n{{cmn|colwidth=30em|\n* [[United States Naval Observatory]]\n* [[United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station]]\n* [[Astrometric binary]]\n* [[Barycentric celestial reference system]]\n* [[Ephemeris]]\n* [[Equatorium]]\n* [[Geodetic astronomy]]\n* [[Gaia (spacecraft)]] — launched December 2013\n* [[Hipparcos|Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission]] (ESA?1989-93)\n* [[Spherical astronomy]]\n* [[Star cartography]]\n* [[Methods of detecting extrasolar planets#Astrometry|Methods of detecting extrasolar planets - Astrometry]]\n* [[Star catalogue]]\n}}\n\n==References==\n{{Reflist|30em}}\n\n===Further reading===\n* {{cite book\n | first=Jean | last=Kovalevsky\n |author2=Seidelman, P. Kenneth | date=2004\n | title=Fundamentals of Astrometry\n | publisher=Cambridge University Press\n | isbn=0-521-64216-7 }}\n* {{cite book\n | first=Hans G. | last=Walter\n | date=2000\n | title=Astrometry of fundamental catalogues: the evolution from optical to radio reference frames\n | publisher=Springer\n | location=New York\n | isbn=3-540-67436-5 }}\n* {{cite book\n | first=Jean | last=Kovalevsky\n | date=1995\n | title=Modern Astrometry\n | publisher=Springer\n | location=Berlin; New York\n | isbn=3-540-42380-X }}\n\n==External links==\n* [http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/info/Astrometry.html MPC Guide to Minor Body Astrometry]\n* [http://ad.usno.navy.mil/ Astrometry Department of the U.S. Naval Observatory]\n** [http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/astrometry/optical-IR-prod USNO Astrometric Catalog and related Products]\n* {{cite web\n | url = http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~rjp0i/museum/engines.html\n | title = Hall of Precision Astrometry\n | publisher = University of Virginia Department of Astronomy\n | accessdate = 2006-08-10 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20060826104509/http://www.astro.virginia.edu/~rjp0i/museum/engines.html| archivedate= 26 August 2006 | deadurl= no}}\n* [http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/planet_like_body.html Planet-Like Body Discovered at Fringes of Our Solar System] (2004-03-15)\n\n* [http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown Mike Brown\'s Caltech Home Page]\n* [http://www.gps.caltech.edu/%7Embrown/papers/ps/sedna.pdf Scientific Paper describing Sedna\'s discovery]\n* [http://www.rssd.esa.int/index.php?project=HIPPARCOS The Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission] — on ESA\n\n{{Astronomy subfields|state=uncollapsed}}\n{{Astronomy navbox}}\n{{Exoplanet}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n[[Category:Astrometry| ]]'
'Athena' '{{About|the Greek goddess}}\n{{pp-pc1}}\n{{Redirect10|Athene|Athina|Pallas Athena}}\n\n{{Infobox deity\n| type = Greek\n| name = Athena \n| image = Mattei Athena Louvre Ma530 n2.jpg\n| image_size = \n| alt = \n| caption = \'\'Mattei Athena\'\' at [[Louvre]]. Roman copy from the 1st century BC/AD after a Greek original of the 4th century BC, attributed to Cephisodotos or Euphranor.\n| god_of = Goddess of Wisdom and War\n| abode = [[Mount Olympus]]\n| symbol = [[Owl of Athena|Owls]], [[olive trees]], [[snakes]], [[Aegis]], [[armor]], [[helmets]], [[spear]]s, [[Gorgoneion]]\n| consort = \n| parents = [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]]; [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]] and [[Zeus]]; [[Zeus]][According to [[Hesiod]]\'s [[Theogony]], Metis was Athena\'s mother, but, according to [[Homer]]\'s [[Iliad]], after Zeus swallowed Metis because she was pregnant with Athena (to prevent the birth), Athena sprang forth from the head of Zeus nonetheless and later it was declared that she \"had no mother\"] [[Hera]]\n| siblings = [[Artemis]], [[Aphrodite]], the [[Muse]]s, the [[Graces]], [[Ares]], [[Apollo]], [[Dionysus]], [[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]], [[Hermes]], [[Heracles]], [[Helen of Troy]], [[Hephaestus]], [[Minos]], [[Perseus]], [[Porus (mythology)|Porus]] \n| children = \n| mount = \n| Roman_equivalent = [[Minerva]]\n}}\n{{Contains special characters}}\n{{Ancient Greek religion}}\n\n\'\'\'Athena\'\'\' ({{IPAc-en|?|?|?|i?|n|?}}; [[Attic Greek]]: {{lang|grc|?????}}, \'\'Ath?n?\'\', or {{lang|grc|???????}}, \'\'Ath?naia\'\'; [[Epic Greek|Epic]]: {{lang|grc|???????}}, \'\'Ath?nai?\'\'; [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: {{lang|grc|?????}}, \'\'Ath?n?\'\') or \'\'\'Athene\'\'\' ({{IPAc-en|?|?|?|i?|n|i?}}; [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]]: {{lang|grc|?????}}, \'\'Ath?n?\'\'), often given the [[epithet]] \'\'\'Pallas\'\'\' ({{IPAc-en|?|p|?|l|?|s}}; {{lang|grc|??????}}), is the goddess of wisdom, courage, inspiration, civilization, law and justice, mathematics, olive oil,{{cn|date=January 2016}} strength, war strategy, the arts, crafts, and skill in [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[Hellenistic religion|religion]] and [[Greek mythology|mythology]]. [[Minerva]] is the [[Roman god]]dess [[Interpretatio graeca|identified with]] Athena.[Deacy, Susan, and Alexandra Villing. \'\'Athena in the Classical World\'\'. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001. Print.] Athena is known for her calm temperament, as she moves slowly to anger. She is noted to have only fought for just reasons, and would not fight without a purpose.[{{Cite book|title = Athena\nGreek and Roman Mythology|last = Loewen|first = Nancy|publisher = Capstone Press|year = 1998|isbn = 9780736800488|location = Mankato, Minnesota|pages = 15}}]\n\nAthena is portrayed as a shrewd companion of [[hero]]es and is the patron [[goddess]] of heroic endeavour. She is the [[Virginity|virgin]] patroness of [[Athens]]. The Athenians founded the [[Parthenon]] on the [[Acropolis]] of her namesake city, Athens (Athena Parthenos), in her honour.[\"Whether the goddess was named after the city or the city after the goddess is an ancient dispute\" (Burkert 1985:139)]\n\n==Etymology of the name and origins of her cult==\nAthena is associated with [[Athens]], a plural name, because it was the place where she presided over her sisterhood, the \'\'Athenai\'\', in earliest times. [[Mycenae]] was the city where the Goddess was called Mykene, and Mycenae is named in the plural for the sisterhood of females who tended her there. At [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] she was called Thebe, and the city again a plural, Thebae (or Thebes, where the ?s? is the plural formation). Similarly, at Athens she was called Athena, and the city Athenae (or Athens, again a plural).[Ruck and Staples 1994:24.]\n\nAthena had a special relationship with [[Athens]], as is shown by the etymological connection of the names of the goddess and the city. According to mythical lore, she competed with Poseidon and she won by creating the olive tree; the Athenians would accept her gift and name the city after her. In history, the citizens of Athens built a statue of Athena as a temple to the goddess, which had piercing eyes, a helmet on her head, attired with an [[aegis]] or [[cuirass]], and an extremely long spear. It also had a crystal shield with the head of the Gorgon on it. A large snake accompanied her and she held [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]], the goddess of victory, in her hand.\n\nIn a [[Mycenea]]n fresco, there is a composition of two women extending their hands towards a central figure who is covered by an enormous figure-eight shield and could also depict the war-goddess with her [[Palladium (classical antiquity)|palladium]], or her palladium in an aniconic representation. Therefore, Mylonas believes that Athena was a Mycenaean creation.[G. Mylonas, \'\'Mycenae and the Mycenaean world\'\', Princeton University Press, Princeton 1965, p. 159.] On the other hand, Nilsson claims that she was the goddess of the palace who protected the king, and that the origin of Athena was the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] domestic snake-goddess.[Also the later Greek Athena was closely related with the snakes and the birds: ?. Nilsson,\'\'Die Geschichte der griechischen Religion\'\', C.F.Beck Verlag, M?nchen 1967, pp. 347, 433.] In the so-called Procession-fresco in [[Knossos]] which was reconstructed by the Mycenaeans, two rows of figures carrying vessels, seem to meet in front of a central figure, which is probably the Minoan palace goddess ?Atano?.[A. Fururmark, ?The Thera catastrophe-Consequences for the European civilization?, p. 672. In: \'\'Thera and the Aegean world I\'\', London 1978.]\n\nIn [[Mycenaean Greek]], at [[Knossos]] a single inscription {{lang|gmy|???????}} \'\'A-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja\'\' /Athana potniya/ appears in the [[Linear B]] tablets from the Late Minoan II-era \"Room of the Chariot Tablets\"; these comprise the earliest Linear B archive anywhere.[[[Knossos|KN]] V 52 (text 208 in Ventris and Chadwick).][{{cite web|url=http://www.palaeolexicon.com/default.aspx?static=12&wid=797 |title=Palaeolexicon, Word study tool of ancient languages |publisher=Palaeolexicon.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}] Although \'\'Athana potniya\'\' often is translated \'\'Mistress Athena\'\', it literally means \"the \'\'[[Potnia]]\'\' of At(h)ana\", which perhaps, means \'\'the Lady of Athens\'\';[Palaima, p. 444.] any connection to the city of Athens in the Knossos inscription is uncertain.[Burkert, p. 44.] We also find \'\'A-ta-no-dju-wa-ja\'\' ([[Kophinas|KO]] Za 1 inscription, line 1), in [[Linear A]] [[Minoan language|Minoan]]; the final part being regarded as the Linear A Minoan equivalent of the Linear B Mycenaean \'\'di-u-ja\'\' or \'\'di-wi-ja\'\' (\'\'Diwia\'\', \"divine\"). \'\'Divine\'\' Athena also was a weaver and the deity of crafts (see \'\'[[dyeus]]\'\').[Ventris and Chadwick [page missing]] Whether her name is attested in [[Eteocretan]] or not will have to wait for decipherment of [[Linear A]].\n\nApart from these Creto-Greek attributions, [[G?nther Neumann]] has suggested that Athena?s name is possibly of [[Lydian language|Lydian]] origin;[G?nther Neumann, ?Der lydische Name der Athena. Neulesung der lydischen Inschrift Nr. 40?. In: \'\'Kadmos\'\' \'\'\'6\'\'\' (1967).] it may be a compound word derived in part from [[Tyrrhenian languages|Tyrrhenian]] \'\'ati\'\', meaning \'\'mother\'\' and the name of the [[Hurrian]] goddess [[Hannahannah]] shortened in various places to \'\'Ana\'\'.{{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}\n\nIn his dialogue \'\'[[Cratylus (dialogue)|Cratylus]]\'\', the Greek philosopher [[Plato]] (428?347 BC), gives the etymology of Athena?s name, based on the views of the ancient Athenians and his own etymological speculations:\n\n{{quote|That is a graver matter, and there, my friend, the modern interpreters of Homer may, I think, assist in explaining the view of the ancients. For most of these in their explanations of the poet, assert that he meant by Athena ?mind? [\'\'[[nous]]\'\'] and ?intelligence? [\'\'[[dianoia]]\'\'], and the maker of names appears to have had a singular notion about her; and indeed calls her by a still higher title, ?divine intelligence? [{{lang|grc|???? ??????}} ? \'\'theou noesis\'\'], as though he would say: This is she who has the mind of God (\'\'a theonoa ? {{lang|grc|? ??????}}\'\'). Perhaps, however, the name Theonoe may mean ?she who knows divine things? (\'\'ta theia noousa ? {{lang|grc|?? ???? ??????}}\'\') better than others. Nor shall we be far wrong in supposing that the author of it wished to identify this Goddess with moral intelligence (\'\'en ethei noesin\'\'), and therefore gave her the name Etheonoe; which, however, either he or his successors have altered into what they thought a nicer form, and called her Athena\'\'.| \'\'Plato, \'\'Cratylus\'\', 407b}}\n\nThus for Plato her name was to be derived from Greek {{lang|grc|???????}}, \'\'Atheon?a\'\' ? which the later Greeks rationalised as from the deity?s (???? \'\'theos\'\') mind (???? \'\'nous\'\').\n\nPlato also noted that the citizens of [[Sais]] in Egypt worshipped a goddess whose Egyptian name was [[Neith]],[?The citizens have a deity for their foundress; she is called in the Egyptian tongue Neith, and is asserted by them to be the same whom the Hellenes call Athena; they are great lovers of the Athenians, and say that they are in some way related to them.? (\'\'[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]\'\' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180%3Atext%3DTim.%3Asection%3D21e#note-link2 21e])] and which was identified with Athena.[Besides \'\'Timaeus\'\' 21e, cf. also Herodotus, \'\'[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]\'\' 2:170?175.] Neith was the war goddess and huntress deity of the Egyptians since the ancient Pre-Dynastic period, who was also identified with [[weaving]]. In addition, ancient Greek myths reported that Athena had visited many mythological places such as Libya\'s Triton River in North Africa and the [[Phlegra (mythology)|Phlegraean plain]].[[[Aeschylus]]. \'\'[[The Eumenides|Eumenides]]\'\' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0006:card=276&highlight=triton#note-link295 v.292?293]. Cf. the tradition that she was the daughter of Neilos: see, e.g. Clement of Alexandria \'\'Protr.\'\' 2.28.2; Cicero, \'\'[[De Natura Deorum]]\'\'. 3.59.] Scholar [[Martin Bernal]] created the controversial[Jacques Berlinerblau, [https://books.google.com/books?id=XM2oUcQM_0YC&printsec= \'\'Heresy in the University: The Black Athena Controversy and the Responsibilities of American Intellectuals\'\'], Rutgers University Press, 1999, p. 93ff.] [[Black Athena]] theory to explain this associated origin by claiming that the conception of Neith was brought to Greece from Egypt, along with \"an enormous number of features of civilization and culture in the third and second millennia\".[M. Bernal, \'\'Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization\'\' (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987), pp. 21, 51?53.] The connection with Neith was later rejected by other scholars in view of formal difficulties.[Jasanoff, Jay H. and Nussbaum, Alan, [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~jasanoff/pdf/Word%20games.pdf Word games: the Linguistic Evidence in Black Athena], in: Mary R. Lefkowitz, Guy MacLean Rogers (eds.), [https://books.google.com/books?id=97jwg1Xwpj0C&dq= \'\'Black Athena Revisited\'\'], The University of North Carolina Press, 1996, p. 194.]\n\n[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]] has suggested a [[Pre-Greek]] origin of the name.[[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], \'\'Etymological Dictionary of Greek\'\', Brill, 2009, p. 29.]\n\nSome authors{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} believe that, in early times, Athena was either an [[owl]] herself or a [[bird goddess]] in general: In the third Book of the \'\'[[Odyssey]]\'\', she takes the form of a [[Sea eagle (bird)|sea-eagle]]. These authors argue that she dropped her prophylactic owl-mask before she lost her wings. ?Athena, by the time she appears in art,? Jane Ellen Harrison had remarked, ?has completely shed her animal form, has reduced the shapes she once wore of snake and bird to attributes, but occasionally in [[Black figure pottery|black-figure vase-paintings]] she still appears with wings.?[Harrison 1922:306. ([http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Winged_Athena.jpg Harrison 1922:307, fig. 84: Detail of a cup in the Faina collection]). {{wayback|url=http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Winged_Athena.jpg |date=20041105112709 |df=y }}]\n\nSome Greek authors{{who|date=April 2010}} have derived natural symbols from the etymological roots of Athena?s names to be aether, air, earth, and moon. This was one of the primary developments of scholarly exploration in the ancient world.[Gerhard Johrens (1981), \'\'Der Athenahymnus des Ailios Aristeides\'\', pp. 438?452.]\n\nMiriam Robbins Dexter has suggested that, at least at some point in her history, Athena has been a [[solar deity]].[Dexter, Miriam Robbins. Proto-Indo-European Sun Maidens and Gods of the Moon. Mankind Quarterly 25:1 & 2 (Fall/Winter, 1984), pp. 137?144.] Athena bears traits common with [[Indo-European]] solar goddesses, such as the possession of a mirror and the invention of weaving (for instance, the Baltic [[Saul?|Saule]] possesses both these characteristics), and her association with Medusa (herself also suspected of being the remnants of a solar goddess) adds solar iconography to her cultus. Additionally, she is also equated with the Celtic [[Sulis]],{{clarify|date=December 2014|reason=the connection of a Celtic deity with a Pre-Greek one is dubious}} a deity whose name is derived from the common proto-Indo-European root for many solar deities. Though the sun in Greek myth is personified as the male [[Helios]], several relictual solar goddesses are known, such as [[Alectrona]].\n\n==Cult and patronages==\n[[File:T?tradrachme ath?nien repr?sentant Ath?na.jpg|thumb|right|Athenian [[tetradrachm]] representing the goddess Athena.]]\n[[File:Peplos scene BM EV.JPG|thumb|A new \'\'[[peplos]]\'\' was woven for Athena and ceremonially brought to dress her [[cult image]] ([[British Museum]]).]]\n\nAthena as the goddess of philosophy became an aspect of her [[cult (religious practice)|cult]] in Classical Greece during the late 5th century BC.[[[Walter Burkert]], \'\'Greek Religion\'\' 1985:VII \"Philosophical Religion\" treats these transformations.] She is the patroness of various crafts, especially of [[weaving]], as \'\'Athena Ergane\'\', and was honored as such at festivals such as [[Chalceia]]. The metalwork of weapons also fell under her patronage. She led battles (\'\'[[Athena Promachos]]\'\' or the warrior maiden \'\'[[Athena Parthenos]]\'\')[C.J. Herrington, \'\'Athena Parthenos and [[Athena Polias]]\'\'. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1955] as the disciplined, strategic side of war, in contrast to her brother [[Ares]], the patron of violence, bloodlust and slaughter?\"the raw force of war\".[Darmon.\"Athena and Ares\". Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1978.] Athena is the goddess of knowledge, purity, arts, crafts, learning, justice and wisdom. She represents intelligence, humility, consciousness, cosmic knowledge, creativity, education, enlightenment, the arts, eloquence and power. She stands for Truth, Justice, and Moral values. She plays a tough, clever and independent role. Not only was this version of Athena the opposite of Ares in combat, it was also the polar opposite of the serene earth goddess version of the deity, \'\'Athena Polias\'\'.[S. Goldhill. \'\'Reading Greek Tragedy\'\' (Aesch.Eum.737). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.] earning the title \'\'Athena Parthenos\'\' (Athena the Virgin). A remnant of archaic myth depicts her as the adoptive mother of [[Erechtheus]]/[[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]] through the foiled rape by [[Hephaestus]].[Pseudo-Apollodorus, \'\'[[Bibliotheke]]\'\' 3.14.6.] Other variants relate that Erichthonius, the serpent that accompanied Athena, was born to [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]: when the rape failed, the semen landed on Gaia and impregnated her. After Erechthonius was born, Gaia gave him to Athena.\n\nThough Athena is a goddess of war strategy, she disliked fighting without purpose and preferred to use wisdom to settle predicaments.[{{cite book|last=Loewen|first=Nancy|title=Athena|isbn=0-7368-0048-4}}] The goddess only encouraged fighting for a reasonable cause or to resolve conflict. She emphasises everyone to use intuitive wisdom rather than anger or violence. As patron of Athens she fought in the Trojan war on the side of the Achaeans.\n\n==Attributes and epithets==\n[[File:Athena Parthenos Altemps Inv8622.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Marble Greek copy signed ?Antiokhos?, a 1st-century BC variant of [[Phidias]]? 5th-century \'\'[[Athena Promachos]]\'\' that stood on the [[Acropolis]].]]\n[[File:Bust Athena Velletri Glyptothek Munich 213.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of the ?Velletri Pallas? type, copy after a votive statue of Kresilas in Athens (c. 425 BC)]]\n[[File:Littleowl.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A [[little Owl]], sacred bird of the Goddess ([[Owl of Athena]]).]]\n{{see also|:Category:Epithets of Athena}}\nAthena\'s [[epithet]]s include {{lang|grc|????????}}, \'\'\'Atrytone\'\'\' (= the unwearying), {{lang|grc|????????}}, \'\'\'Parth?nos\'\'\' (= virgin), and {{lang|grc|????????}}, \'\'\'Promachos\'\'\' (the First Fighter, i.e. \'\'she who fights in front\'\').\n\nIn poetry from Homer, an oral tradition of the 8th or 7th century BC, onward, Athena\'s most common [[epithets in Homer|epithet]] is \'\'\'Glaukopis\'\'\' ({{lang|grc|?????????}}), which usually is translated as, \'\'bright-eyed\'\' or \'\'with gleaming eyes\'\'.[{{LSJ|glaukw{{=}}pis|?????????|shortref}}.] The word is a combination of \'\'glaukos\'\' ({{lang|grc|???????}}, meaning \'\'gleaming\'\', \'\'silvery\'\', and later, \'\'bluish-green\'\' or \'\'gray\'\')[{{LSJ|glauko/s1|???????|shortref}}.] and \'\'ops\'\' ({{lang|grc|??}}, \'\'eye\'\', or sometimes, \'\'face\'\').[{{LSJ|w)/y|??|shortref}}.] It is interesting to note that \'\'glaux\'\' ({{lang|grc|?????}},[[[D\'Arcy Wentworth Thompson|Thompson, D\'Arcy Wentworth]]. \'\'[https://archive.org/stream/glossaryofgreekb00thomrich#page/46/mode/2up A glossary of Greek birds]\'\'. Oxford, Clarendon Press 1895, pp 45-46.] \"little owl\")[{{LSJ|glau/c|?????|shortref}}.] is from the same root, presumably according to some, because of the bird\'s own distinctive eyes. The bird which sees well in the night is closely associated with the goddess of [[wisdom]]: in archaic images, Athena is frequently depicted with an [[Owl of Athena|owl]] (or \"owl of Athena\" and later under the [[Roman Empire]], \"owl of [[Minerva]]\") perched on her hand. This pairing evolved in tandem so that even today the owl is a symbol of perspicacity and erudition.[[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], i. 5. ? 3; 41. ? 6] The word \'\'aethyia\'\' ({{lang|grc|??????}}) signifies a \'\'diver\'\', and figuratively, a \'\'ship\'\', so the name must reference Athena teaching the art of shipbuilding or navigation.[[[John Tzetzes]], \'\'ad Lycophr.\'\', \'\'l.c.\'\'][{{Cite journal |last=Schmitz |first=Leonhard |contribution=Aethyta |editor-last=Smith |editor-first = William |title = [[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]] |volume=1 |page=51 |place=Boston, MA |year=1867 |contribution-url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0060.html }}] In a temple at Phrixa in [[Elis]], which was reportedly built by Clymenus, she was known as \'\'\'Cydonia\'\'\'.[Smith, \'\'Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology\'\'.]\n\nThe various Athena subgroups, or cults, all branching from the central goddess herself often proctored various initiation rites of Grecian youth, for example, the passage into citizenship by young men and for women the elevation to the status of citizen wife. Her various cults were portals of a uniform socialization, even beyond mainland Greece.[P.Schmitt,\"Athena Apatouria et la ceinture: Les aspects f?minins des apatouries ? Ath?nes\" in \'\'Annales:Economies, Societies, Civilisations\'\' (1059-1073). London: Thames and Hudson, 2000.]\n\nIn the \'\'[[Iliad]]\'\' (4.514), the [[Homeric Hymns]], and in [[Hesiod]]\'s \'\'[[Theogony]]\'\', Athena is given the curious epithet \'\'\'Tritogeneia.\'\'\' The meaning of this term is unclear; it could mean various things, including \"[[Triton (mythology)|Triton]]-born\", perhaps indicating that the sea-deity was her parent according to some early myths.[Karl Kerenyi suggests that \"Tritogeneia did not mean that she came into the world on any particular river or lake, but that she was born of the water itself; for the name Triton seems to be associated with water generally.\" (Kerenyi, p. 128).][{{LSJ|*tritoge/neia|???????????|shortref}}.] In Ovid\'s \'\'Metamorphoses\'\' Athena is occasionally referred to as \"Tritonia\".\n\nAnother possible meaning may be \'\'triple-born\'\' or \'\'third-born\'\', which may refer to a triad or to her status as the third daughter of Zeus or the fact she was born from Metis, Zeus, and herself; various legends list her as being the first child after Artemis and Apollo, though other legends{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} identify her as Zeus\' first child. The latter would have to be drawn from Classical myths, however, rather than earlier ones.\n\nIn her role as judge at [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes\']] trial on the murder of his mother, [[Clytemnestra]] (which he won), Athena won the epithet \'\'\'Areia\'\'\'. Other epithets were [[Ageleia]] and [[Itonia]].\n\n[[File:Athena Carpegna Massimo.jpg|thumb|Cult statue of Athena with the face of the Carpegna type (late 1st century BC to early 1st century CE), from the Piazza dell?Emporio, Rome.]]\n\nAthena was given many other cult titles. She has the epithet \'\'\'Ergane\'\'\' as the patron of craftsmen and artisans. With the epithet \'\'[[Athena Parthenos|Parthenos]]\'\' (\"virgin\") she was especially worshipped in the festivals of the [[Panathenaea]] and [[Pamboeotia]] where both militaristic and athletic displays took place.[Robertson, Noel.\'\'Festivals and Legends:The Formation of Greek Cities in the Light of Public Ritual.\'\'Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1992.] With the epithet \'\'[[Athena Promachos|Promachos]]\'\' she led in battle (see [[Promachos]]). With the epithet \'\'\'Polias\'\'\' (\"of the city\"), Athena was the protector of not only Athens but also of many other cities, including [[Argos]], [[Sparta]], [[Gortyn]], [[Lindos]], and [[Larisa]].\n\nShe was given the epithet \'\'\'[[Hippeia]]\'\'\' (\"of the horses\", \"equestrian\"), as the inventor of the [[chariot]], and was worshiped under this title at Athens, [[Tegea]] and [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]]. As Athena Hippeia she was given an alternative parentage: [[Poseidon]] and Polyphe, daughter of [[Oceanus]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.theoi.com/Nymphe/NymphePolyphe.html |title=POLYPHE: Oceanid nymph of Rhodes in the Aegean; Greek mythology |publisher=Theoi.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}][{{cite web|url=http://www.theoi.com/Cult/AthenaTitles.html |title=TITLES OF ATHENA: Ancient Greek religion |publisher=Theoi.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}] In each of these cities her temple frequently was the major temple on the acropolis.[Burkert, p. 140.]\n\nAthena often was equated with [[Aphaea]], a local goddess of the island of [[Aegina]], located near [[Athens]], once Aegina was under Athenian\'s power. The Greek historian [[Plutarch]] (46?120 AD) also refers to an instance during the Parthenon\'s construction of her being called \'\'\'Athena [[Hygieia]]\'\'\' (\"healer\", \'\'health personified\'\'):\n\n{{quote|A strange accident happened in the course of building, which showed that the goddess was not averse to the work, but was aiding and co-operating to bring it to perfection. One of the artificers, the quickest and the handiest workman among them all, with a slip of his foot fell down from a great height, and lay in a miserable condition, the physicians having no hope of his recovery. When [[Pericles]] was in distress about this, the goddess [Athena] appeared to him at night in a dream, and ordered a course of treatment, which he applied, and in a short time and with great ease cured the man. And upon this occasion it was that he set up a brass statue of Athena Hygeia, in the citadel near the altar, which they say was there before. But it was [[Phidias]] who wrought the goddess\'s image in gold, and he has his name inscribed on the pedestal as the workman of it.[Plutarch, \'\'Life of Pericles\'\', [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pericles*.html#13 13.8]]}}\n\nIn classical times the [[Plynteria]], or ?Feast of Adorning?, was observed every May, it was a festival lasting five days. During this period the Priestesses of Athena, or ?Plyntrides?, performed a cleansing ritual within ?the Erecththeum?, the personal sanctuary of the goddess. Here Athena\'s statue was undressed, her clothes washed, and body purified.\n\nIn [[Arcadia]], she was assimilated with the ancient goddess Alea and worshiped as [[Athena Alea]].\n\n==Mythology==\n\n===Birth===\n[[File:Amphora birth Athena Louvre F32.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|After he swallowed her pregnant mother, [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]], Athena is ?born? from Zeus? forehead as he grasps the clothing of [[Eileithyia]] on the right; [[black-figure pottery|black-figured]] [[amphora]], 550?525 BC, Louvre.]]\n\nAlthough Athena appears before [[Zeus]] at [[Knossos]] ? in [[Linear B]], as {{lang|gmy|???????}}, \'\'a-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja\'\', ?Mistress Athena?[Knossos tablet V 52 ([[John Chadwick]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=RMj7M_tGaNMC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA88#v=onepage&q&f=false \'\'The Mycenaean World\'\'], [Cambridge] 1976:88, fig 37.) \'\'Athana Potnia\'\' does not appear at Mycenaean [[Pylos]], where the mistress goddess is \'\'ma-te-re te-i-ja\'\', \'\'Mater [[Theia]]\'\', literally ?Mother Goddess?.] ? in the Classical [[Olympian gods|Olympian pantheon]], Athena was remade as the favorite daughter of Zeus, born fully armed from his forehead.[Jane Ellen Harrison?s famous characterization of this myth-element as, ?a desperate theological expedient to rid an earth-born Kore of her matriarchal conditions? (Harrison 1922:302) has never been refuted nor confirmed.] The story of her birth comes in several versions. In the one most commonly cited, Zeus lay with Metis, the goddess of crafty thought and wisdom, but he immediately feared the consequences. It had been prophesied that Metis would bear children more powerful than the sire,[Compare the prophecy concerning [[Thetis]].] even Zeus himself. In order to prevent this, Zeus swallowed Metis.[Hesiod, \'\'[[Theogony]]\'\' 890ff and 924ff.] He was too late: Metis had already conceived.\n\nEventually Zeus experienced an enormous headache; [[Prometheus]], [[Hephaestus]], [[Hermes]], [[Ares]], or Palaemon (depending on the sources examined) cleaved Zeus? head with the double-headed [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[axe]], the \'\'[[labrys]]\'\'. Athena leaped from Zeus? head, fully grown and armed, with a shout ? ?and pealed to the broad sky her clarion cry of war. And Ouranos trembled to hear, and Mother Gaia?? ([[Pindar]], \'\'Seventh Olympian Ode\'\'). Plato, in the \'\'[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]\'\', attributes the cult of Athena to the culture of [[Crete]], introduced, he thought, from Libya during the dawn of Greek culture. Classical myths thereafter note that [[Hera]] was so annoyed at Zeus for having produced a child that she conceived and bore [[Hephaestus]] by [[parthenogenesis|herself]], but in Philostratus the Elder, Imagines [https://archive.org/stream/imagines00philuoft#page/246/mode/2up 2. 27] (trans. Fairbanks) (Greek rhetorician 3rd century AD) Hera \"rejoices\" at Athena\'s birth \"as though Athena were her daughter also.\"\nIn accordance with this mythological tradition, Plato, in \'\'[[Cratylus]]\'\' (407B), gave the etymology of her name as signifying ?the mind of god?, \'\'theou noesis\'\'. The Christian apologist of the 2nd century [[Justin Martyr]] takes issue with those pagans who erect at springs images of [[Persephone|Kore]], whom he interprets as Athena:\n?They said that Athena was the daughter of Zeus not from intercourse, but when the god had in mind the making of a world through a word (\'\'[[logos]]\'\') his first thought was Athena.?[Justin, \'\'Apology\'\' 64.5, quoted in Robert McQueen Grant, \'\'Gods and the One God\'\', vol. 1:155, who observes that it is [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] ?who similarly identifies Athena with ?forethought??.]
\n\n[[File:Atena farnese, copia romana da orig. greco della cerchia fidiaca, forse Pyrrhos nel 430 ac ca., 6024, 01.JPG|thumb|\'\'Atena farnese\'\', Roman copy of a Greek original from Phidias? circle, c. 430 AD, Museo Archeologico, Naples]]\n\n====Other tales====\nSome origin stories tell of Athena having been born outside of Olympus and raised by the god Triton. Fragments attributed by the Christian [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] to the semi-legendary [[Phoenicia]]n historian [[Sanchuniathon]], which Eusebius thought had been written before the [[Trojan war]], make Athena instead the daughter of [[Cronus]], a king of [[Byblos]] who visited \'the inhabitable world\' and bequeathed [[Attica]] to Athena.[{{cite web|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/af/af01.htm |title=\''Sacred Texts: Ancient Fragments\'', ed. and trans. I. P. Cory, 1832: \"The Theology of the Ph?nicians from Sanchoniatho\" |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100905172619/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/af/af01.htm| archivedate= 5 September 2010 | deadurl= no}}] Sanchuniathon\'s account would make Athena the sister of Zeus and Hera, not Zeus\' daughter.\n\n===Pallas Athena===\nThe tradition regarding Athena\'s parentage involves some of her more mysterious [[epithet]]s: Pallas, as in the ancient-Greek {{lang|grc|?????? ?????}} (also Pallantias) and Tritogeneia (also Trito, Tritonis, Tritoneia, Tritogenes). A distant archaic separate entity named Pallas is invoked as Athena\'s father, sister, foster sister, companion, or opponent in battle. One of these is [[Pallas (daughter of Triton)|Pallas]], a daughter of [[Triton (mythology)|Triton]] (a sea god), and a childhood friend of Athena.[{{cite web|url=http://www.theoi.com/Nymphe/NymphePallas.html |title=Pallas |publisher=Theoi.com |date= |accessdate=2011-07-24}}]\n\nIn every case, Athena kills Pallas, accidentally, and thereby gains the name for herself. In one telling, they practice the arts of war together until one day they have a falling out. As Pallas is about to strike Athena, Zeus intervenes. With Pallas stunned by a blow from Zeus, Athena takes advantage and kills her. Distraught over what she has done, Athena takes the name Pallas for herself.\n\nWhen Pallas is Athena\'s father, the events, including her birth, are located near a body of water named Triton or [[Lake Tritonis|Tritonis]]. When Pallas is Athena\'s sister or foster-sister, Athena\'s father or foster-father is [[Triton (mythology)|Triton]], the son and herald of [[Poseidon]]. But Athena may be called the daughter of Poseidon and a nymph named Tritonis, without involving Pallas. Likewise, Pallas may be Athena\'s father or opponent, without involving Triton.[Graves, Robert, \'\'The Greek Myths I\'\', \"The Birth of Athena\", 8.a., p. 51. The story comes from [[Libya]]n (modern [[Berber people|Berbers]]) where the Greek Athena and the Egyptian [[Neith]] blend into one deity. The story is not often referenced because some of the details are contradicted by other, better-documented theories. Frazer, vol. 2 p.41] On this topic, Walter Burkert says \"she is the Pallas of Athens, \'\'Pallas Athenaie\'\', just as Hera of Argos is \'\'Here Argeie\'\'.[Burkert, p. 139.] For the Athenians, Burkert notes, Athena was simply \"the Goddess\", \'\'h? the?s\'\' (? ????), certainly an ancient title.\n\n[[File:Ac.parthenon5.jpg|thumb|[[The Parthenon]], Temple of Athena Parthenos]]\n\n===\'\'Athena Parthenos\'\': Virgin Athena===\n\n\nAthena never had a consort or lover and is thus known as \'\'[[Athena Parthenos]]\'\', \"Virgin Athena\". Her most famous temple, the [[Parthenon]], on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]] in [[Athens]] takes its name from this title. It is not merely an observation of her virginity, but a recognition of her role as enforcer of rules of sexual modesty and ritual mystery. Even beyond recognition, the Athenians allotted the goddess value based on this pureness of virginity as it upheld a rudiment of female behavior in the patriarchal society. Kerenyi\'s study and theory of Athena accredits her virginal epithet to be a result of the relationship to her father Zeus and a vital, cohesive piece of her character throughout the ages.[K.Kerenyi,\'\'Die Jungfrau und Mutter der griechischen Religion. Eine Studie uber Pallas Athene\'\'.Zurich:Rhein Verlag, 1952.]\n\nThis role is expressed in a number of stories about Athena. [[Marinus of Neapolis]] reports that when Christians removed the statue of the Goddess from the [[Parthenon]], a beautiful woman appeared in a dream to [[Proclus]], a devotee of Athena, and announced that the \'\'\"Athenian Lady\"\'\' wished to dwell with him.[Marinus of Samaria, \'\'\"The Life of Proclus or Concerning Happiness\"\'\', Translated by Kenneth S. Guthrie (1925), pp.15?55:30, retrieved 21 May 2007.[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/marinus_01_life_of_proclus.htm Marinus, \'\'Life of Proclus\'\']]\n\n[[File:Athena Giustiniani.jpg|thumb|The \'\'[[Athena Giustiniani]]\'\', a Roman copy of a Greek statue of Pallas Athena with her serpent, [[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]]]]\n\n====Erichthonius====\n[[Hephaestus]] attempted to [[rape]] Athena, but she eluded him. His [[semen]] fell to the earth and impregnated the soil, and [[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]] was born from the Earth, [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. Athena then raised the baby as a foster mother.[\n\nAthena puts the infant Erichthonius into a small box (\'\'cista\'\') which she entrusts to the care of three sisters, [[Herse]], [[Pandrosus]], and [[Aglaulus, daughter of Cecrops|Aglaulus]] of Athens. The goddess does not tell them what the box contains, but warns them not to open it until she returns. One or two sisters opens the \'\'cista\'\' to reveal Erichthonius, in the form (or embrace) of a [[serpent (symbolism)|serpent]]. The serpent, or insanity induced by the sight, drives Herse and Aglaulus to throw themselves off the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]].][Graves, Robert, \'\'The Greek Myths I\'\', \"The Nature and Deeds of Athena\" 25.d.] Jane Harrison (\'\'Prolegomena\'\') finds this to be a simple cautionary tale directed at young girls carrying the \'\'cista\'\' in the [[Thesmophoria]] rituals, to discourage them from opening it outside the proper context.\n\n\nAnother version of the myth of the Athenian maidens is told in \'\'[[Metamorphoses]]\'\' by the Roman poet [[Ovid]] (43 BC ? 17 AD); in this late variant [[Hermes]] falls in love with Herse. Herse, Aglaulus, and Pandrosus go to the temple to offer sacrifices to Athena. Hermes demands help from Aglaulus to seduce Herse. Aglaulus demands money in exchange. Hermes gives her the money the sisters have already offered to Athena. As punishment for Aglaulus\'s greed, Athena asks the goddess [[Invidia|Envy]] to make Aglaulus jealous of Herse. When Hermes arrives to seduce Herse, Aglaulus stands in his way instead of helping him as she had agreed. He turns her to stone.[[[Ovid]], \'\'Metamorphoses\'\', X. Aglaura, Book II, 708?751; XI. The Envy, Book II, 752?832.]\n\nWith this mythic origin, Erichthonius became the founder-[[king of Athens]], and many beneficial changes to Athenian culture were ascribed to him. During this time, Athena frequently protected him.\n\n====Medusa and Tiresias====\nIn a late myth, [[Medusa]], unlike her sister [[Gorgon]]s, came to be viewed by the Greeks of the 5th century as a beautiful mortal that served as priestess in Athena\'s temple. Poseidon liked Medusa, and decided to rape her in the temple of Athena, refusing to allow her vow of chastity to stand in his way.[{{cite web |url= http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/a_f/bogan/medusamyth.htm |title= Medusa in Myth and Literary History |accessdate= 2010-01-06| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20100123102204/http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/a_f/bogan/medusamyth.htm| archivedate= 23 January 2010 | deadurl= no}}] Upon discovering the desecration of her temple, Athena changed Medusa\'s form to match that of her sister Gorgons as punishment. Medusa\'s hair turned into snakes, her lower body was transformed also, and meeting her gaze would turn any living man to stone. In the earliest myths, there is only one [[Gorgon]], but there are two snakes that form a belt around her waist.\n\nIn one version of the [[Tiresias]] myth, Tiresias stumbled upon Athena bathing, and he was struck blind by her to ensure he would never again see what man was not intended to see. But having lost his eyesight, he was given a special gift?to be able to understand the language of the birds (and thus to foretell the future).\n\n[[File:AttalusICorrected.jpg|thumb|Athena depicted on a coin of [[Attalus I]], ruler of [[Pergamon]]; c. 200 BC.]]\n\n===Lady of Athens===\nAthena competed with [[Poseidon]] to be the patron deity of Athens, which was yet unnamed, in a version of one [[founding myth]]. They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and that the Athenians would choose the gift they preferred. Poseidon struck the ground with his [[trident]] and a salt water spring sprang up; this gave them a means of trade and water?Athens at its height was a significant sea power, defeating the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] fleet at the [[Battle of Salamis]]?but the water was salty and not very good for drinking.[Graves 1960:16.3p 62.]\n\nAthena, however, offered them the first domesticated [[olive tree]]. The Athenians (or their king, [[Cecrops I|Cecrops]]) accepted the olive tree and with it the patronage of Athena, for the olive tree brought wood, oil, and food. [[Robert Graves]] was of the opinion that \"Poseidon\'s attempts to take possession of certain cities are political myths\" which reflect the conflict between matriarchal and patriarchal religions.[\"This sanctuary had been respected from early days by all the [[Peloponnesian]]s, and afforded peculiar safety to its suppliants\" (Pausanias, \'\'Description of Greece\'\' iii.5.6)] containing the Temple of [[Athena Alea]]. The \'\'temenos\'\' was founded by [[Aleus]], [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] was informed.[Pausanias, \'\'Description of Greece\'\' viii.4.8.] Votive bronzes at the site from the Geometric and Archaic periods take the forms of horses and deer; there are sealstone and [[fibula]]e. In the Archaic period the nine villages that underlie Tegea banded together in a [[synoecism]] to form one city.[Compare the origin of [[Sparta]].] Tegea was listed in [[Homer]]\'s [[Catalogue of Ships]] as one of the cities that contributed ships and men for the [[War of Troy|Achaean assault on Troy]].\n\n\n===Counselor===\n[[File:Athena Herakles Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2648.jpg|thumb|Athena and Heracles on an [[Attica|Attic]] red-figure [[kylix (drinking cup)|kylix]], 480?470 BC.]]\n\nLater myths of the Classical Greeks relate that Athena guided [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] in his quest to behead [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]]. She instructed [[Heracles]] to skin the [[Nemean Lion]] by using its own claws to cut through its thick hide. She also helped Heracles to defeat the [[Stymphalian Birds]], and to navigate the underworld so as to capture [[Cerberus]].\n\nIn \'\'[[The Odyssey]]\'\', [[Odysseus]]\' cunning and shrewd nature quickly won Athena\'s favour. In the realistic epic mode, however, she largely is confined to aiding him only from \'\'afar\'\', as by implanting thoughts in his head during his journey home from Troy. Her guiding actions reinforce her role as the \"protectress of heroes\" or as mythologian [[Walter Friedrich Otto]] dubbed her the \"goddess of nearness\" due to her mentoring and motherly probing.[W.F.Otto,\'\'Die Gotter Griechenlands(55-77)\'\'.Bonn:F.Cohen,1929] It is not until he washes up on the shore of an island where [[Nausicaa]] is washing her clothes that Athena arrives personally to provide more tangible assistance. She appears in Nausicaa\'s dreams to ensure that the princess rescues Odysseus and plays a role in his eventual escort to Ithaca.\n\nAthena appears in disguise to Odysseus upon his arrival, initially lying and telling him that Penelope, his wife, has remarried and that he is believed to be dead; but Odysseus lies back to her, employing skillful prevarications to protect himself.[Trahman in \'\'Phoenix\'\', p. 35.] Impressed by his resolve and shrewdness, she reveals herself and tells him what he needs to know in order to win back his kingdom. She disguises him as an elderly man or beggar so that he cannot be noticed by the suitors or Penelope, and helps him to defeat the suitors.\n\nShe also plays a role in ending the resultant feud against the suitors\' relatives. She instructs Laertes to throw his spear and to kill the father of Antinous, Eupeithes.\n\n===Judgment of Paris===\n{{Main|Judgement of Paris}}\nIn one myth, all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] (the eventual parents of [[Achilles]]). Only [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]], goddess of discord, was not invited. She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word ???????? (kallist?i, \"for the fairest\"), which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.\n\n[[File:Mengs, Urteil des Paris.jpg|thumb|bottom|Paris is awarding the apple to Aphrodite \'\'Urteil des Paris\'\' by [[Anton Raphael Mengs]], c. 1857]]\n\nThe goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a [[Troy|Trojan]] prince. After bathing in the spring of [[Mount Ida]] where Troy was situated, the goddesses appeared before Paris for his decision. The goddesses undressed before him to be evaluated, either at his request or by their own choice.\n\nStill, Paris could not decide, as all three were ideally beautiful, so they resorted to bribes. Hera tried to bribe Paris with control over all [[Asia]] and [[Europe]], while Athena offered wisdom, fame and glory in battle, but Aphrodite came forth and whispered to Paris that if he were to choose her as the fairest he would have the most beautiful mortal woman in the world as a wife, and he accordingly chose her. This woman was [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], who was, unfortunately for Paris, already married to King [[Menelaus]] of [[Sparta#Prehistory|Sparta]]. The other two goddesses were enraged by this and through Helen\'s abduction by Paris they brought about the [[Trojan War]].\n\n[[File:Cornelis Cornelisz. van Haarlem - The Judgment of Paris - WGA05252.jpg|thumb|The apple is being given to Paris in alternative interpretations - [[Cornelis van Haarlem]], 1628]]\n\nAnother interpretation is that the apple was being given to the man by the three goddesses, instead of to one of the goddesses. This is the interpretation mythologists and writers delving into more ancient Greek myths that date from before the classical period. The later interpretation is considered a variant interpretation of icons of great antiquity, to conform to the changes in the evolution of the Greek pantheon in myths.\n\nIt is suspected that the icons relate to a religious ritual in which a \"king\" was selected who would serve for a year (or a specified period) before being sacrificed and that the cycle would be renewed upon his death. [[Robert Graves]] was a strong proponent of this theory and it is written about in many of his publications, such as \'\'[[The Greek Myths]]\'\' and \'\'[[The White Goddess]]\'\'. This also was suggested in the early versions of an extensive analysis of Greek mythology, \'\'[[The Golden Bough]]\'\' by [[James George Frazer]]. In a later editions Frazer completely revised the book and left out his research and discussion of these rituals in the abbreviated edition that is known by that title today.\n\nThese interpretations relate to a concept of a \'\'Great Goddess\'\', a \'\'[[Mother Goddess]]\'\', and the religious worship of such a deity in very ancient Greek culture. It took a triad form, one phase being Athena along with Hera and Aphrodite and others in her matrilineal line (grandmother, mother, etc.) such as ([[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]], [[Hera]], [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]]), and myths that arose through interpretations (or misinterpretations) of icons from earlier cultural periods. The apple would have been given to the \"king\" the three goddesses selected.\n\n===Roman fable of Arachne===\nThe [[fable]] of [[Arachne]] is a late Roman addition to Classical [[Greek mythology]][The Arachne narrative is in [[Ovid]]\'s \'\'[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]\'\' (vi.5-54 and 129-145) and mentioned in [[Virgil]]\'s \'\'[[Georgics]]\'\', iv, 246.] but does not appear in the myth repertoire of the Attic vase-painters. Arachne\'s name means \'\'spider\'\'.[{{LSJ|a)ra/xnh|??????}}, {{LSJ|a)ra/xnhs|???????|ref}}.] Arachne was the daughter of a famous dyer in [[Tyrian purple]] in Hypaipa of [[Lydia]], and a weaving student of Athena. She became so conceited of her skill as a weaver that she began claiming that her skill was greater than that of Athena herself.\n\nAthena gave Arachne a chance to redeem herself by assuming the form of an old woman and warning Arachne not to offend the deities. Arachne scoffed and wished for a weaving contest, so she could prove her skill.\n\nAthena wove the scene of her victory over [[Poseidon]] that had inspired her patronage of Athens. According to Ovid\'s Latin narrative, Arachne\'s tapestry featured twenty-one episodes of the infidelity of the deities, including [[Zeus]] being unfaithful with [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]], with [[Europa (mythical)|Europa]], and with [[Dana?]]. Athena admitted that Arachne\'s work was flawless, but was outraged at Arachne\'s offensive choice of subjects that displayed the failings and transgressions of the deities. Finally, losing her temper, Athena destroyed Arachne\'s tapestry and loom, striking it with her shuttle.\n\nAthena then struck Arachne with her staff, which changed her into a spider. In some versions, the destruction of her loom leads Arachne to hang herself in despair; Athena takes pity on her, and transforms her into a spider. In the aforementioned version, Arachne weaved scenes of joy while Athena weaved scenes of horror.\n\nThe fable suggests that the origin of weaving lay in imitation of spiders and that it was considered to have been perfected first in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]].\n\n===A changed status in classical mythology===\nIn [[Classical Greece|classical Greek]] mythology the role of Athena changed as the pantheon became organized under the leadership of Zeus. In earlier mythology she is identified as a [[parthenogenesis|parthenogenic]] daughter of a goddess, but the classical myths fashion for her a peculiar \"birth from the head of Zeus\" that assigns a father for Athena and eliminates a mother for her, identifying the father as a deity who at one time was portrayed as her brother. Athens may have fallen in 404 BC but the cult of Athena was so dominant in the culture that it survived the transitions seen in the mythic roles of other goddesses, albeit with a juggling of \"family\" relationships.\n\nJ.J. Bachofen advocated that Athena was originally a maternal figure stable in her security and poise but was caught up and perverted by a patriarchal society; this was especially the case in Athens. The goddess adapted but could very easily be seen as a god. He viewed it as \"motherless paternity in the place of fatherless maternity\" where once altered, Athena\'s character was to be crystallized as that of a patriarch.[J.J. Bachofen.\"Mother Right:An investigation of religious and juridical character of matriarchy in the ancient world\",\'\'Myth, Religion and Mother Right\'\'.London:Routledge and Kegan Paul,1967.]\n\nWhereas Bachofen saw the switch to paternity on Athena\'s behalf as an increase of power, Freud on the contrary perceived Athena as an \"original mother goddess divested of her power\". In this interpretation, Athena was demoted to be only Zeus\'s daughter, never allowed the expression of motherhood. Still more different from Bachofen\'s perspective is the lack of role permanency in Freud\'s view: Freud held that time and differing cultures would mold Athena to stand for what was necessary to them.[Shearer,\'\'Athene\'\',224-235.]\n\nSome modern authors classify the changes as an \"androgynous compromise\" that allowed her traits and what she stood for to be attributed to male and female rulers alike over the course of history (such as [[Marie de\' Medici]], [[Anne of Austria]], [[Christina of Sweden]], and [[Catherine the Great]]).[F.Zeitlin,\"The Dynamics of Misogyny:Myth and Mythmaking in the Oresteia\",\'\'Arethusa\'\'15(1978), 182.]\n\n==Classical art==\n[[File:NAMABG-Aphaia Athena statue.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Restoration of the [[polychrome]] decoration of the Athena statue from the [[Aphaea]] temple at [[Aegina]], c. 490 BC (from the exposition ?Bunte G?tter? by the Munich [[Glyptothek]])]]\n[[File:Mosaique Athena Gorgone Museo Pio-Clementino.jpg|thumb|Classical Mosaic from a villa at [[Tusculum]], now at [[Museo Pio-Clementino]], Vatican]]\n[[Image:StonePaletteMythologicalScene.jpg|thumb|Mythological scene with Athena (left) and [[Herakles]] (right), on a [[stone palette]] of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]], [[India]]]]\n\nClassically, Athena is portrayed wearing a full-length [[chiton (costume)|chiton]], and sometimes in armor, with her helmet raised high on the forehead to reveal the image of [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]. Her shield bears at its centre the aegis with the head of the gorgon (gorgoneion) in the center and snakes around the edge. It is in this standing posture that she was depicted in [[Phidias]]\'s famous lost [[Chryselephantine|gold and ivory]] statue of her, 36 m tall, the \'\'[[Athena Parthenos]]\'\' in the [[Parthenon]]. Athena also often is depicted with an [[owl]] sitting on one of her shoulders.[The owl\'s role as a symbol of wisdom originates in this association with Athena.]\n\nThe \'\'[[Mourning Athena]]\'\' is a relief sculpture that dates around 460 BC and portrays a weary Athena resting on a staff.\nIn earlier, archaic portraits of Athena in [[Black-figure pottery]], the goddess retains some of her Minoan-Mycenaean character, such as great bird wings although this is not true of archaic sculpture such as those of [[Aphaean Athena]], where Athena has subsumed an earlier, invisibly numinous?\'\'[[Aphaea]]\'\'?goddess with Cretan connections in her \'\'mythos\'\'.\n\nOther commonly received and repeated types of Athena in sculpture may be found in [[:Category:Athena types|this list]].\n\nApart from her attributes, there seems to be a relative consensus in late sculpture from the Classical period, the 5th century onward, as to what Athena looked like. Most noticeable in the face is perhaps the full round strong, chin with a high nose that has a high bridge as a natural extension of the forehead. The eyes typically are somewhat deeply set. The unsmiling lips are usually full, but the mouth is depicted fairly narrow, usually just slightly wider than the nose. The neck is somewhat long. The net result is a serene, serious, somewhat aloof, and very classical beauty.\n\n==Post-classical culture==\n[[File:Chariot clock Telemachus.jpg|thumb|An Empre style [[chariot clock]] with the goddess and Telemachus. France, c. 1810.]] \nA brief summary of Athena\'s evolution of myriad motifs after her dominance in Greece may be seen as follows: The rise of Christianity in Greece largely ended the worship of Greek deities and polytheism in general, but she resurfaced in the Middle Ages as a defender of sagacity and virtue so that her warrior status was still intact. (She may be found on some family crests of nobility.) During the Renaissance she donned the mantle of patron of the arts and human endeavor and finally although not ultimately, Athena personified the miracles of freedom and republic during the French Revolution. (A statue of the goddess was centered on the Place de la Revolution in Paris.)[{{cite web|url=http://www.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id=97 |title=Symbols of the Seal of California |publisher=LearnCalifornia.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}]\n\n\n[[File:2005 Austria 10 Euro 60 Years Second Republic front.jpg|thumb|[[Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Austria)#2005 coinage|Euro coin commemorating 60 Years of the Second Republic of Austria]], featuring [[Athena Promachos]]]]\n\nAthena is a natural patron of universities: she is the symbol of the [[Darmstadt University of Technology]], in Germany, and the [[Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro|Federal University of Rio de Janeiro]], in Brazil. Her image can be found in the shields of the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters and the Faculty of Sciences of the [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]], where her owl is the symbol of the Faculty of Chemistry. Her helmet appears upon the shield of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York. At [[Bryn Mawr College]] in Pennsylvania a statue of Athena (a replica of the original bronze one in the arts and archaeology library) resides in the Great Hall. It is traditional at exam time for students to leave offerings to the goddess with a note asking for good luck, or to repent for accidentally breaking any of the college\'s numerous other traditions. Athena\'s owl also serves as the mascot of the college, and one of the college hymns is \"Pallas Athena\". Pallas Athena is the tutelary goddess of the international social fraternity [[Phi Delta Theta]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.phideltatheta.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20&Itemid=122 |title=Phi Delta Theta International - Symbols |accessdate=2008-06-07 |publisher=phideltatheta.org |date= | archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080607045215/http://www.phideltatheta.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20&Itemid=122| archivedate= 7 June 2008 | deadurl= no}}] Her owl is also a symbol of the fraternity.[\n\n[[Jean Boucher (artist)|Jean Boucher]]\'s statue of the seated skeptical thinker [[Ernest Renan]] caused great controversy when it was installed in Tr?guier, [[Brittany]] in 1902. Renan\'s 1862 biography of Jesus had denied his divinity, and he had written the \"[http://www.lexilogos.com/document/renan/acropolis.htm Prayer on the Acropolis]\" addressed to the goddess Athena. The statue was placed in the square fronted by the cathedral. Renan\'s head was turned away from the building, while Athena, beside him, was depicted raising her arm, which was interpreted as indicating a challenge to the church during an anti-clerical phase in French official culture. The installation was accompanied by a mass protest from local Roman Catholics and a religious service against the growth of [[skepticism]] and [[secularism]].][{{cite web|url=http://www.jeanboucher.net/?d=monuments&p=monuments |title=Musee Virtuel Jean Boucher |publisher=Jeanboucher.net |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}]\n\nAthena has been used numerous times as a symbol of a republic by different countries and appears on currency as she did on the ancient [[drachma]] of Athens.\nAthena (Minerva) is the subject of the $50 1915-S Panama-Pacific [[commemorative coin]]. At 2.5 troy oz (78 g) gold, this is the largest (by [[weight]]) coin ever produced by the [[United States Mint|U.S. Mint]]. This was the first $50 coin issued by the U.S. Mint and no higher was produced until the production of the $100 platinum coins in 1997. Of course, in terms of face-value in adjusted dollars, the 1915 is the highest denomination ever issued by the U.S. Mint.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}\n\nFrench car maker [[Citro?n]] named the top line of its [[Citro?n DS|DS]] models (pronounced D?esse in French, for Goddess) Pallas.\nIt was voted the most beautiful car of all time by \'\'[[Classic & Sports Car]]\'\' magazine.[{{cite web|url= http://www.motorcities.com/vehicle/09B4E032327279.html|title=1955 Citroen DS ? The Most Beautiful Car of All Time|publisher=Motorcities.com |accessdate=9 July 2009|work=}}]\n\n== Genealogy of the Olympians in classical Greek mythology ==\n{{Genealogy of the Olympians in Greek mythology}}\n\n==See also==\n{{Portal|Greek mythology|Hellenismos}}\n\n* [[Athenaeum (disambiguation)]]\n* [[Palladium (mythology)]]\n\n==Footnotes==\n{{reflist|30em}}\n\n==References==\n\n===Ancient sources===\n* Apollodorus, \'\'Library, 3,180\'\'\n* Augustine, \'\'De civitate dei xviii.8?9\'\'\n* Cicero, \'\'De natura deorum iii.21.53, 23.59\'\'\n* Eusebius, \'\'Chronicon 30.21?26, 42.11?14\'\'\n* Lactantius, \'\'Divinae institutions i.17.12?13, 18.22?23\'\'\n* Livy, \'\'[[Ab urbe condita libri]] vii.3.7\'\'\n* Lucan, \'\'[[Pharsalia|Bellum civile]] ix.350\'\'\n\n===Modern sources===\n* [[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], 1985. \'\'Greek Religion\'\' (Harvard).\n* [[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]], (1955) 1960. \'\'The Greek Myths\'\' revised edition.\n* [[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]], 1951. \'\'The Gods of the Greeks\'\' (Thames and Hudson).\n* [[Jane Ellen Harrison|Harrison, Jane Ellen]], 1903. \'\'Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion\'\'.\n* Palaima, Thomas, 2004. \"Appendix One: Linear B Sources.\" In Trzaskoma, Stephen, et al., eds., \'\'Anthology of Classical Myth: Primary Sources in Translation\'\' (Hackett).\n* Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples, 1994. \'\'The World of Classical Myth: Gods and Goddesses, Heroines and Heroes\'\' (Durham, NC).\n* [[Seppo Telenius|Telenius, Seppo Sakari]], (2005) 2006. \'\'Athena-Artemis\'\' (Helsinki: Kirja kerrallaan).\n* Trahman, C.R., 1952. \"Odysseus\' Lies (\'Odyssey\', Books 13-19)\" in \'\'Phoenix\'\', Vol. 6, No. 2 (Classical Association of Canada), pp. 31?43.\n* [[Michael Ventris|Ventris, Michael]] and [[John Chadwick]], 1973. \'\'Documents in Mycenaean Greek\'\' (Cambridge).\n* [[Brian Friel|Friel, Brian]], 1980. \'\'Translations\'\'\n* [[William Smith (lexicographer)|Smith, William]]; \'\'[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]\'\', London (1873). [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D51%3Aentry%3Dathena-bio-1 \"Athe\'na\"]\n\n==External links==\n{{wikiquote}}\n{{commons category|Athena}}\n* [http://www.theoi.com/Cult/AthenaCult.html Theoi.com Cult of Athena] ?Extracts of classical texts\n* [http://www.goddess-athena.org/Museum/Sculptures/index.htm Roy George, \"Athena: The sculptures of the goddess\"] ?A repertory of Greek and Roman types\n*[http://www.goddess-athena.org/Museum/Temples/ Temples of Athena]\n{{Navboxes\n|title = Articles Related to Athena\n|list =\n\n{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}\n{{National personifications}}\n}}\n{{Greek religion}}\n{{Symbols of Greece}}\n{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n[[Category:Athena| ]]\n[[Category:Attic mythology]]\n[[Category:Crafts goddesses]]\n[[Category:Deities in the Iliad]]\n[[Category:National personifications]]\n[[Category:Smithing goddesses]]\n[[Category:Virgin goddesses]]\n[[Category:War goddesses]]\n[[Category:Wisdom goddesses]]\n[[Category:Tutelary deities]]\n[[Category:Peace goddesses]]\n[[Category:Solar goddesses]]\n[[Category:Offspring of Zeus]]\n[[Category:Greek War Deities]]'
'Amber_Diceless_Roleplaying_Game' '{{infobox RPG\n|title= Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game\n|image= [[Image:Amber DRPG.jpg|200px]]\n|caption= Cover of the main \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' rulebook (art by [[Stephen Hickman]])\n|designer= [[Erick Wujcik]]\n|publisher= [[Phage Press]]
[[Guardians of Order]]\n|date= 1991\n|genre= [[Fantasy]]\n|system= Custom (direct comparison of statistics without dice)\n|footnotes= \n}}\n\nThe \'\'\'\'\'Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game\'\'\'\'\' is a [[role-playing game]] created and written by [[Erick Wujcik]], set in the [[fictional universe]] created by author [[Roger Zelazny]] for his \'\'[[Chronicles of Amber]]\'\'. The game is unusual in that no [[dice]] are used in resolving conflicts or player actions; instead a simple [[diceless role-playing game|diceless]] system of comparative ability, and narrative description of the action by the players and [[gamemaster]], is used to determine how situations are resolved.[{{cite journal|title=Pyramid Pick: Amber|journal=[[Pyramid (magazine)|Pyramid]]| url=http://www.sjgames.com/pyramid/login/article.html?id=370| date=1993-08-01| last=Blankenship| first=Loyd|volume=#2|accessdate=2008-02-15}}][{{Cite book | contribution=Amber Diceless | title=Hobby Games: The 100 Best | last=Lindroos | first=Nicole | authorlink=Nicole Lindroos | editor-last=Lowder | editor-first=James | editor-link=James Lowder | publisher=[[Green Ronin Publishing]] | year=2007 | pages=8 | isbn=978-1-932442-96-0 | oclc=154694406}}]\n\n\'\'Amber DRPG\'\' was created in the 1980s, and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era.[Erick Wujcik \'\'Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game\'\' ([[Phage Press]], 1991) ISBN 1-880494-00-0] was published in 1991 by [[Phage Press]], covering material from the first five novels (the \"[[The Chronicles of Amber#The Corwin cycle|Corwin Cycle]]\") and some details ? sorcery and the [[Logrus]] ? from the remaining five novels (the \"[[The Chronicles of Amber#The Merlin Cycle|Merlin Cycle]]\"), in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the Courts of Chaos. Some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice ? for example, players can be full Trump Artists without having walked the Pattern or the Logrus, which [[Merlin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Merlin]] says is impossible; and players\' [[psychic]] abilities are far greater than those shown in the books.\n\n[[Image:Shadow Knight.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Cover of \'\'Shadow Knight\'\']]\nA 256-page companion volume, \'\'Shadow Knight\'\',[Erick Wujcik \'\'Shadow Knight\'\' (Phage Press, 1993) ISBN 1-880494-01-9] was published in 1993. This supplemental [[wikt:rulebook|rule book]] includes the remaining elements from the Merlin novels, such as Broken Patterns, and allows players to create Constructs such as Merlin\'s Ghostwheel. The book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series\' [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] but as an example of a [[Campaign (role-playing games)|roleplaying campaign]] with Merlin, Luke, Julia, Jurt and Coral as the PCs. The remainder of the book is a collection of essays on the game, statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series, and (perhaps most usefully for GMs) plot summaries of each of the ten books. The book includes some material from the short story [[Amber Short Stories|\"The Salesman\'s Tale,\"]] and some unpublished material cut from \'\'[[Prince of Chaos]]\'\',{{citation needed|date=January 2012}} notably Coral\'s pregnancy by Merlin.\n\nBoth books were translated into French and published by [[Jeux Descartes]] in 1994 and 1995.\n\nA third book, \'\'Rebma\'\', was promised. Cover art was commissioned[Stephen Hickman\'s [http://www.therpgsite.com/showthread.php?t=14836 \'\'Rebma\'\' cover art]] and pre-orders were taken, but it never arrived. Wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the Courts of Chaos.[{{cite journal|title=Shadow Knight (Preview) and Interview with Erick Wujcik |url=http://www.sjgames.com/pyramid/sample.html?id=640|accessdate=2006-05-29|journal=[[Pyramid (magazine)|Pyramid]]|volume=#6|last=Blankenship|first=Loyd}}] The publishing rights to the \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' games were acquired in 2004 by [[Guardians of Order]], who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game. However, no new edition was released before Guardians of Order went out of business in 2006. The two existing books are now [[out-of-print]], but they have been made available as [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] downloads.[[http://rpg.drivethrustuff.com/catalog/index.php?cPath=28_156 \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' books] at DriveThruRPG]\n\nIn June 2007 a new publishing company, headed by Edwin Voskamp and Eric Todd, was formed with the express purpose of bringing \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' back into print. The new company is named \'\'Diceless by Design\'\'.[[http://www.dicelessbydesign.com Diceless By Design]] \n\nIn May 2010, \'\'Rite Publishing\'\' secured a license from Diceless by Design to use the rules system with a new setting in the creation of a new product to be written by industry and system veteran Jason Durall. The project \'\'\'Lords of Gossamer & Shadow (Diceless)\'\'\' was funded via [[Kickstarter]] in May 2013.[{{cite web|title=Lords of Gossamer & Shadow|url=http://www.kickstarter.com/projects/937759598/lords-of-gossamer-and-shadow-diceless-role-playing|work=Kickstarter|accessdate=19 August 2013}}] In Sept 2013 the project was completed, and on in Nov 2013 Lords of Gossamer and Shadow (Diceless) [{{cite web|title=Lords of Gossamer & Shadow|url=http://rpg.drivethrustuff.com/product/119779&affiliate_id=203141&src=RitePubbanner|work=DrivethruRpg|accessdate=27 November 2013}}] was released publicly in full-color Print and PDF, along with additional supplements and continued support.\n\n==Setting==\n{{main|The Chronicles of Amber}}\nThe game is set in the [[Parallel universe (fiction)|multiverse]] described in Zelazny\'s \'\'Chronicles of Amber\'\'. The first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the Patternfall war; that is, after the end of the fifth book in the series, \'\'[[The Courts of Chaos]]\'\', but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of Zelazny\'s cosmology that were featured there in more detail. The \'\'Amber\'\' multiverse consists of \'\'\'Amber\'\'\', a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found [[The Pattern (The Chronicles of Amber)|the Pattern]], the symbol of [[:wikt:order|Order]]; The \'\'\'Courts of Chaos\'\'\', an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found [[the Logrus]], the manifestation of [[Chaos (cosmogony)|Chaos]], and the Abyss, the source or end of all reality; and \'\'\'Shadow\'\'\', the collection of all possible [[universe]]s (shadows) between and around them. Inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the Pattern and the Logrus to travel through Shadow.\n\nIt is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books ? the ruling family of Amber, known as the Elder Amberites ? or a resident of the Courts. However, since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting, it is fairly common to either start with King Oberon\'s death \'\'before\'\' the book begins and roleplay the Elder Amberites as they vie for the throne; or to populate Amber from scratch with a different set of Elder Amberites. The former option is one presented in the book; the latter is known in the Amber community as an \"[[Amethyst]]\" game. A third option is to have the players portray [[Corwin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Corwin]]\'s children, in an Amber-like city built around Corwin\'s pattern; this is sometimes called an \"[[Argent]]\" game, since one of Corwin\'s [[Heraldry|heraldic]] colours is [[Silver]].\n\n==System==\n\n===Attributes===\nCharacters in \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' are represented by four [[attribute (role-playing games)|attributes]]: \'\'Psyche\'\', \'\'Strength\'\', \'\'Endurance\'\' and \'\'Warfare\'\'.\n*\'\'\'Psyche\'\'\' is used for feats of willpower or magic\n*\'\'\'Strength\'\'\' is used for feats of strength or [[Hand to hand combat|unarmed combat]]\n*\'\'\'Endurance\'\'\' is used for feats of endurance\n*\'\'\'Warfare\'\'\' is used for armed combat, from duelling to commanding armies\nThe attributes run from ?25 (normal human level), through ?10 (normal level for a denizen of the Courts of Chaos) and 0 (normal level for an inhabitant of Amber), upwards without limit. Scores above 0 are \"ranked\", with the highest score being ranked 1st, the next-highest 2nd, and so on. The character with 1st rank in each attribute is considered \"superior\" in that attribute, being considered to be substantially better than the character with 2nd rank even if the difference in scores is small. All else being equal, a character with a higher rank in an attribute will always win a contest based on that attribute.\n\n====The Attribute Auction====\nA character\'s ability scores are purchased during [[character creation]] in an [[auction]]; players get 100 [[character point]]s, and bid on each attribute in turn. The character who bids the most for an attribute is \"ranked\" first and is considered superior to all other characters in that attribute. Unlike conventional auctions, bids are non-refundable; if one player bids 65 for psyche and another wins with a bid of 66, then the character with 66 is \"superior\" to the character with 65 even though there is only one bid difference. Instead, lower bidding characters are ranked in ascending order according to how much they have bid, the characters becoming progressively weaker in that attribute as they pay less for it. After the auction, players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks, but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank. Further, a character with a bid-for rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a bought-up rank.\n\nThe Auction simulates a \'history\' of competition between the descendants of Oberon for [[player character]]s who have not had dozens of decades to get to know each other. Through the competitive Auction, characters may begin the game vying for standings. The auction serves to introduce some unpredictability into character creation without the need to resort to dice, cards, or other randomizing devices. A player may intend, for example, to create a character who is a strong, mighty warrior, but being \"outplayed\" in the auction may result in lower attribute scores than anticipated, therefore necessitating a change of character concept. Since a player cannot control another player\'s bids, and since all bids are non-refundable, the auction involves a considerable amount of strategizing and prioritization by players. A willingness to spend as many points as possible on an attribute may improve your chances of a high ranking, but too reckless a spending strategy could leave a player with few points to spend on powers and objects. In a hotly contested auction, such as for the important attribute of warfare, the most valuable skill is the ability to force one\'s opponents to back down. With two or more equally determined players, this can result in a \"bidding war\" where the attribute is driven up by increments to large sums. An alternative strategy is to try to cow other players into submission with a high opening bid. Most players bid low amounts between one and ten points in an initial bid in order to feel out the competition and to save points for other uses. A high enough opening bid could signal a player\'s determination to be first ranked in that attribute, thereby dissuading others from competing.\n\n====Psyche in \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' compared to the \'\'Chronicles\'\'====\nCharacters with high psyche are presented as having strong [[telepathic]] abilities, being able to [[hypnotise]] and even mentally dominate any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eye-contact. This is likely due to three scenes in the \'\'Chronicles\'\': first, when Eric paralyzes Corwin with an attack across the Trump and refuses to desist because one or the other would be dominated; second, when [[Corwin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Corwin]] faces the demon Strygalldwir, it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet; and third, when Fiona is able to keep Brand immobile in the final battle at the Courts of Chaos.[Roger Zelazny \'\'The Great Book of Amber\'\' ([[Eos Press]], 1999) ISBN 0-380-80906-0] However, in general, the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mind-to-mind contact (for example, Trump contact) and magic or Trump is involved in all three of the above conflicts, so it is not clear whether Zelazny intended his characters to have such a power; the combination of Brand\'s \"living trump\" powers and his high Psyche (as presented in the roleplaying game) would have guaranteed him victory over Corwin. \'\'Shadow Knight\'\' does address this inconsistency somewhat, by presenting the \"living trump\" abilities as somewhat limited.\n\n===Powers===\nCharacters in \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' have access to the powers seen in the \'\'Chronicles of Amber\'\': \'\'Pattern\'\', \'\'Logrus\'\', \'\'Shape-shifting\'\', \'\'Trump\'\', and \'\'magic\'\'.\n\n*\'\'\'Pattern:\'\'\' A character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe, and while there can manipulate probability.\n\n*\'\'\'Logrus:\'\'\' A character who has mastered the Logrus can send out Logrus tendrils and pull themselves or objects through shadow.\n\n*\'\'\'Shape-shifting:\'\'\' Shape-shifters can alter their physical form and abilities.\n\n*\'\'\'Trump:\'\'\' Trump Artists can create Trumps, a sort of [[tarot]] card which allows mental communication and travel. The book features Trump portraits of each of the elder Amberites. The trump picture of Corwin is executed in a subtly different style ? and has features very similar to Roger Zelazny\'s.\n\n*\'\'\'Magic:\'\'\' Three types of magic are detailed: \'\'\'Power Words\'\'\', with a quick, small effect; \'\'\'Sorcery\'\'\', with pre-prepared spells as in many other game systems; and \'\'\'Conjuration\'\'\', the creation of small objects.\n\nEach of the first four powers is available in an advanced form.\n\n===Artifacts, Personal shadows and Constructs===\nWhile a character with Pattern, Logrus or Conjuration can acquire virtually any object, players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues ? unbreakability, or a mind of their own. Since they have paid points for the items, they are a part of the character\'s legend, and cannot lightly be destroyed. Similarly, a character can find any possible universe, but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are (in some sense) \"real\" and therefore useful. The expansion, \'\'Shadow Knight\'\', adds Constructs ? artifacts with connections to shadows.\n\n===Stuff===\nUnspent character points become \'\'\'good stuff\'\'\' ? a good luck for the character. Players are also allowed to overspend (in moderation), with the points becoming \'\'\'bad stuff\'\'\' ? bad luck which the Gamemaster should inflict on the character. Stuff governs how non-player characters perceive and respond to the character: characters with good stuff will often receive friendly or helpful reactions, while characters with bad stuff are often treated with suspicion or hostility.\n\nAs well as representing luck, stuff can be seen as representing a character\'s [[alignment (role-playing games)|outlook on the universe]]: characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place, while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile.\n\n===Conflict resolution===\nIn any given fair conflict between two characters, the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win. The key words here are \'\'fair\'\' and \'\'eventually\'\' ? if characters\' ranks are close, and the weaker character has obtained some advantage, then the weaker character can escape defeat or perhaps prevail. Close ranks result in longer contests while greater difference between ranks result in fast resolution. Alternatively, if characters\' attribute ranks are close, the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict. For example, if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is Strength; a character could reveal a weapon, changing it to Warfare; they could try to overcome the other character\'s mind using a power, changing it to Psyche; or they could concentrate their strength on defense, changing it to Endurance. If there is a substantial difference between characters\' ranks, the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react.\n\n===The \'Golden Rule\'===\n\'\'Amber DRPG\'\' advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit ? even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes.\n\n==Community==\nDespite the game\'s [[out-of-print]] status, a thriving [[fan convention|convention]] scene exists supporting the game. Amber conventions, known as \'\'Ambercons\'\', are held yearly in [[Massachusetts]], [[Michigan]], [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] (United States), [[Milton Keynes]] (England) and [[Modena, Italy]]. Additionally, Phage Press published 12 volumes of a dedicated \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' magazine called \'\'Amberzine\'\'. Some \'\'Amberzine\'\' issues are still available from Phage Press.\n\n==References==\n{{reflist}}\n*{{cite journal | last=Ranne | first=G.E. | title=Ambre | journal=Casus Belli | issue=70 | pages=22?24 | date= July?August 1992}} Review {{fr icon}}\n\n== External links ==\n*[http://www.therpgsite.com/forumdisplay.php?f=29 The Official Amber DRPG and Erick Wujcik Forum] The Official Amber DRPG and Erick Wujcik Forum\n*[http://www.phagepress.com/ Phage Press] was the original publisher for the \'\'Amber RPG\'\'.\n*[http://calwestray.tripod.com/amber.htm Westray], an \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' fansite.\n*[http://www.skyseastone.net/amberlinks/ MaBarry\'s \'\'Amber\'\' links], a wiki-based catalog of \'\'Amber\'\' sites on the net. It has a strong focus on RPG related sites.\n*[http://www.ambercons.com/ AmberCons], information regarding international \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' conventions\n*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131016054146/http://wso.williams.edu/~msulliva/campaigns/amber/ Epoch\'s Amber Tips], information and advice for setup and running a game, pitfalls of the rules, canon tone translated to actual play (original page now offline; link updated to archived copy from October 16th, 2013 version)\n*[http://www.skyseastone.net/itsog/shadows/006082.html compared: \'\'Amber DRPG\'\' Attributes & Zelazny?s \'\'Chronicles\'\'], essay on comparison/analysis of canon text and game attributes\n*[http://rpg.drivethrustuff.com/product_info.php?products_id=1447&it=1 Game PDF] Drive-thru RPG Site for purchase of game PDF\n\n[[Category:The Chronicles of Amber]]\n[[Category:Fantasy role-playing games]]\n[[Category:Universal role-playing games]]\n[[Category:Role-playing games based on novels]]\n[[Category:American role-playing games]]\n[[Category:Role-playing games introduced in 1991]]'
'Athene_(disambiguation)' '{{wiktionary|Athene}}\n\'\'\'[[Athene]]\'\'\' or Athena is the shrewd companion of heroes and the goddess of heroic endeavour in Greek mythology.\n\n\'\'\'Athene\'\'\' may also refer to:\n*[[881 Athene]], a main-belt asteroid\n*[[Athene (owl)|\'\'Athene\'\' (owl)]], a genus of small owls\n*[[Athene Glacier]], a glacier in Antarctica\n*[[HMS Athene|HMS \'\'Athene\'\']], an aircraft transport\n*[[USS Athene (AKA-22)|USS \'\'Athene\'\' (AKA-22)]], an \'\'Artemis\'\'-class attack cargo ship\n*[[Bachir Boumaaza]] or Athene (born 1980), Belgian YouTube personality and social activist\n\n==People with the given name==\n*[[Athene Seyler]] (1889?1990), English actress\n\n==See also==\n*[[Altena (disambiguation)]]\n*[[Atena (disambiguation)]]\n*[[Athen (disambiguation)]]\n*[[Athena (disambiguation)]]\n*[[Athens (disambiguation)]]\n\n{{disambiguation|geo|given name}}'
'AphexTwin' '#REDIRECT [[Aphex Twin]]{{R from CamelCase}}'
'Alloy' '{{other uses}}\n{{pp-move-indef}}\n[[File:Steel wire rope.png|thumb|[[Wire rope]] made from [[steel]], which is a metal alloy whose major component is [[iron]], with [[carbon]] content between 0.02% and 2.14% by mass.]]\n\nAn \'\'\'alloy\'\'\' is a mixture of [[metal]]s or a mixture of a metal and another [[Chemical element|element]]. Alloys are defined by metallic bonding character.[[Callister, W. D. \"Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction\" 2007, 7th edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York, Section 4.3 and Chapter 9].] An alloy may be a [[solid solution]] of metal elements (a single phase) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions). [[Intermetallic]] compounds are alloys with a defined [[stoichiometry]] and crystal structure. [[Zintl phase]]s are also sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types (see also: [[Van Arkel-Ketelaar triangle]] for information on classifying bonding in binary compounds).\n\nAlloys are used in a wide variety of applications. In some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the combination of metals imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength. Examples of alloys are [[steel]], [[solder]], [[brass]], [[pewter]], [[duralumin]], [[phosphor bronze]] and [[Amalgam (chemistry)|amalgam]]s.\n\nThe alloy constituents are usually measured by mass. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or [[interstitial alloy]]s, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or [[intermetallic]].\n\n==Introduction==\n[[File:Born bronze - Bronze casts.jpg|thumb|Liquid [[bronze]], being poured into molds during casting.]]\n[[File:A brass light.JPG|thumb|A [[brass]] lamp.]]\n\nAn alloy is a mixture of either pure or fairly pure [[chemical elements]], which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a [[metal]]. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal, such as [[wrought iron]], in that, with an alloy, the added impurities are usually desirable and will typically have some useful benefit. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements; at least one of which being a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be [[solubility|soluble]], dissolving into the mixture.\n\nWhen the alloy cools and solidifies ([[crystallize]]s), its mechanical properties will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft and [[malleability|malleable]], such as [[aluminium]], can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, like [[copper]]. Although both metals are very soft and [[ductility|ductile]], the resulting [[aluminium alloy]] will be much [[hardness|harder]] and [[strength of materials|stronger]]. Adding a small amount of non-metallic [[carbon]] to [[iron]] produces an alloy called [[steel]]. Due to its very-high strength and [[toughness]] (which is much higher than pure iron), and its ability to be greatly altered by [[heat treatment]], steel is one of the most common alloys in modern use. By adding [[chromium]] to steel, its resistance to [[corrosion]] can be enhanced, creating [[stainless steel]], while adding [[silicon]] will alter its electrical characteristics, producing [[silicon steel]].\n\nAlthough the elements usually must be soluble in the [[liquid]] state, they may not always be soluble in the [[solid]] state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a [[solid solution]], becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a [[phase (matter)|phase]]. If the mixture cools and the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous [[microstructure]] of different phases. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. These alloys are called intermetallic alloys because, if cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are [[supersaturation|supersaturated]] with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys separate within the crystals, forming intermetallic phases that serve to reinforce the crystals internally.\n\nSome alloys occur naturally, such as [[electrum]], which is an alloy that is [[native metal|native]] to Earth, consisting of [[silver]] and [[gold]]. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and [[nickel]], but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was [[bronze]], which is made by mixing the metals [[tin]] and [[copper]]. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires ([[smelting]]) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include [[pewter]], [[brass]] and [[pig iron]]. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. [[Carbon steel]] can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like [[mild steel]] or hard alloys like [[spring steel]]. [[Alloy steel]]s can be made by adding other elements, such as [[molybdenum]], [[vanadium]] or nickel, resulting in alloys such as [[high-speed steel]] or [[tool steel]]. Small amounts of [[manganese]] are usually alloyed with most modern-steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like [[phosphorus]], [[sulfur]] and [[oxygen]], which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, [[titanium alloy|titanium]], [[nickel alloys|nickel]], and [[magnesium alloy]]s. Some modern [[superalloy]]s, such as [[incoloy]], [[inconel]], and [[hastelloy]], may consist of a multitude of different components.\n\n==Terminology==\n[[File:Inconel gate valve--The-Alloy-Valve-Stockist.JPG|thumb|A gate valve, made from [[Inconel]].]]\n\nThe term alloy is used to describe a mixture of atoms in which the primary constituent is a metal. The primary metal is called the \'\'base\'\', the \'\'matrix\'\', or the \'\'[[solvent]]\'\'. The secondary constituents are often called \'\'solutes\'\'. If there is a mixture of only two types of atoms, not counting impurities, such as a [[copper-nickel]] alloy, then it is called a \'\'binary alloy.\'\' If there are three types of atoms forming the mixture, such as iron, nickel and chromium, then it is called a \'\'ternary alloy.\'\' An alloy with four constituents is a \'\'quaternary alloy,\'\' while a five-part alloy is termed a \'\'quinary alloy.\'\' Because the percentage of each constituent can be varied, with any mixture the entire range of possible variations is called a \'\'system\'\'. In this respect, all of the various forms of an alloy containing only two constituents, like iron and carbon, is called a \'\'binary system,\'\' while all of the alloy combinations possible with a ternary alloy, such as alloys of iron, carbon and chromium, is called a \'\'ternary system\'\'.[Bauccio, Michael (1003) \'\'ASM metals reference book\'\'. ASM International. ISBN 0-87170-478-1.]\n\nAlthough an alloy is technically an impure metal, when referring to alloys, the term \"impurities\" usually denotes those elements which are not desired. These impurities are often found in the base metals or the solutes, but they may also be introduced during the alloying process. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form [[iron sulfide]], which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel.[{{cite book|author=Verhoeven, John D. |title=Steel Metallurgy for the Non-metallurgist|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=brpx-LtdCLYC&pg=PA56|year=2007|publisher=ASM International|isbn=978-1-61503-056-9|page=56}}] [[Lithium]], [[sodium]] and [[calcium]] are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the [[structural integrity]] of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that simply contain unwanted impurities are often called \"impure metals\" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form [[metal oxide]]s; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using [[flux (metallurgy)|fluxes]], chemical additives, or other methods of [[extractive metallurgy]].[Davis, Joseph R. (1993) \'\'ASM Specialty Handbook: Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys\'\'. ASM International. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-87170-496-2.]\n\nIn practice, some alloys are used so predominantly with respect to their base metals that the name of the primary constituent is also used as the name of the alloy. For example, 14 [[Karat (purity)|karat]] [[gold]] is an alloy of gold with other elements. Similarly, the [[silver]] used in [[jewelry]] and the [[aluminium]] used as a structural building material are also alloys.\n\nThe term \"alloy\" is sometimes used in everyday speech as a synonym for a particular alloy. For example, automobile wheels made of an [[aluminium alloy]] are commonly referred to as simply \"[[alloy wheel]]s\", although in point of fact steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys. Steel is such a common alloy that many items made from it, like [[wheel]]s, [[barrel]]s, or [[girder]]s, are simply referred to by the name of the item, assuming it is made of steel. When made from other materials, they are typically specified as such, (i.e.: \"bronze wheel,\" \"plastic barrel,\" or \"wood girder\").\n\n==Theory==\nAlloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals that often enhance its properties. For example, [[steel]] is stronger than [[iron]], its primary element. The [[electrical conductivity|electrical]] and [[thermal conductivity]] of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as [[density]], [[Reactivity (chemistry)|reactivity]], [[Young\'s modulus]] of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties such as [[tensile strength]][Mills, Adelbert Phillo (1922) \'\'Materials of Construction: Their Manufacture and Properties\'\', John Wiley & sons, inc, originally published by the University of Wisconsin, Madison] and [[shear strength]] may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the [[atom]]s in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting [[ferromagnetic]] alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura.[{{cite journal|last1=Hogan|first1=C.|title=Density of States of an Insulating Ferromagnetic Alloy|journal=Physical Review|volume=188|issue=2|pages=870|year=1969|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.188.870|bibcode=1969PhRv..188..870H}}][{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=X.|last2=Suhl|first2=H.|title=Spin-wave-related period doublings and chaos under transverse pumping|journal=Physical Review A|volume=32|pages=2530?2533|year=1985|doi=10.1103/PhysRevA.32.2530|pmid=9896377|issue=4|bibcode=1985PhRvA..32.2530Z}}]\nSome alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals. [[Bronze]], an alloy of [[copper]] and [[tin]], was the first alloy discovered, during the [[prehistory|prehistoric]] period now known as the [[bronze age]]; it was harder than pure copper and originally used to make tools and weapons, but was later superseded by metals and alloys with better properties. In later times bronze has been used for [[ornament (architecture)|ornaments]], [[bell (instrument)|bell]]s, [[statue]]s, and [[bearing (mechanical)|bearings]]. [[Brass]] is an alloy made from [[copper]] and [[zinc]].\n\nUnlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single [[melting point]], but a melting range in which the material is a mixture of [[solid]] and [[liquid]] phases. The temperature at which melting begins is called the [[solidus (chemistry)|solidus]], and the temperature when melting is just complete is called the [[liquidus]]. However, for many alloys there is a particular proportion of constituents (in some cases more than one)?either a [[eutectic]] mixture or a [[Eutectic system#Peritectic|peritectic composition]]?which gives the alloy a unique melting point.\n\n==Heat-treatable alloys==\n[[File:IronAlfa&IronGamma.svg|thumb|left|[[Allotropes of iron]], ([[alpha iron]] and [[gamma iron]]) showing the differences in atomic arrangement.]]\n[[File:Photomicrograph of annealed and quenched steel, from 1911 Britannica plates 11 and 14.jpg|thumb|Photomicrographs of [[steel]]. Top photo: [[annealing (metallurgy)|Annealed]] (slowly cooled) steel forms a heterogeneous, lamellar microstructure called [[pearlite]], consisting of the phases [[cementite]] (light) and [[Ferrite (iron)|ferrite]] (dark). Bottom photo: [[Quenched]] (quickly cooled) steel forms a single phase called [[martensite]], in which the carbon remains trapped within the crystals, creating internal stresses.]]\n\nAlloys are often made to alter the mechanical properties of the base metal, to induce [[hardness]], [[toughness]], [[ductility]], or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be [[work hardening|work hardened]] by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during [[plastic deformation]], such as hammering or bending, and are permanent unless the metal is [[recrystallization (metallurgy)|recrystallized]]. However, some alloys can also have their properties altered by [[heat treatment]]. Nearly all metals can be softened by [[annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]], which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of [[aluminium]], [[copper]], [[magnesium]], [[titanium]], and [[nickel]] can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree that [[steel]] does.[Dossett, Jon L. and Boyer, Howard E. (2006) \'\'Practical heat treating\'\'. ASM International. pp. 1?14. ISBN 1-61503-110-3.]\n\n==History and examples==\n\n===Meteoric iron===\n[[File:Meteorite and a meteoritic iron hatchet.JPG|thumb|A [[meteorite]] and a hatchet that was forged from [[meteoric iron]].]]\n\nThe use of alloys by humans started with the use of [[meteoric iron]], a naturally occurring alloy of [[nickel]] and [[iron]]. It is the main constituent of [[iron meteorite]]s which occasionally fall down on Earth from outer space. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was.[{{cite journal\n| author =Rickard, T. A. \n| title = The Use of Meteoric Iron\n| journal =Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute\n|volume = 71\n| issue = 1/2\n| year = 1941\n| pages = 55?66\n| doi = 10.2307/2844401\n| jstor =2844401\n| publisher =Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland}}] Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to work.[[[#Buchwald|Buchwald]], pp. 13?22]\n\n===Bronze and brass===\n[[File:Bronzebeile.JPG|right|thumb| [[Bronze]] axe 1100 BC]]\n[[File:T?rzieher Bremen 1405.JPG|thumb|[[Bronze]] doorknocker]]\nIron is usually found as [[iron ore]] on Earth, except for one deposit of [[native iron]] in [[Greenland]], which was used by the [[Inuit]] people.[[[#Buchwald|Buchwald]], pp. 35?37] Native [[copper]], however, was found worldwide, along with [[silver]], [[gold]] and [[platinum]], which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Eventually, humans learned to [[smelting|smelt]] metals such as copper and [[tin]] from [[ore]], and, around 2500 BC, began alloying the two metals to form [[bronze]], which is much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with [[zinc]] to form [[brass]].[[[#Buchwald|Buchwald]], pp. 39?41] Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as [[hardness]], [[toughness]] and [[melting point]], under various conditions of [[temperature]] and [[work hardening]], developing much of the information contained in modern [[Phase diagram|alloy phase diagram]]s.[ Arrowheads from the Chinese [[Qin dynasty]] (around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.][[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ancient/emperors-ghost-army.html Emperor\'s Ghost Army]. pbs.org. November 2014]\n\n===Amalgams===\n[[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] has been smelted from [[cinnabar]] for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form [[amalgam (chemistry)|amalgam]]s (an alloy in a soft paste, or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for plating objects with precious metals, called [[gilding]], such as [[armor]] and [[mirror]]s. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind.[Rapp, George (2009) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ed0yC98aAKYC&pg=PA180 \'\'Archaeomineralogy\'\']. Springer. p. 180. ISBN 3-540-78593-0] Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.[Miskimin, Harry A. (1977) [https://books.google.com/books?id=QE04AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA31 \'\'The economy of later Renaissance Europe, 1460?1600\'\']. Cambridge University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-521-29208-5.]\n\n===Precious-metal alloys===\n[[File:25 litrai en ?lectrum repr?sentant un tr?pied delphien.jpg|thumb|[[Electrum]], a natural alloy of silver and gold, was often used for making coins.]]\n\nMany ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient [[Egypt]] and [[Mycenae]], gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of [[colored gold]]. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make [[sterling silver]], increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers.[Nicholson, Paul T. and Shaw, Ian (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=Vj7A9jJrZP0C&pg=PA164 \'\'Ancient Egyptian materials and technology\'\']. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164?167. ISBN 0-521-45257-0.] Around 250 BC, [[Archimedes]] was commissioned by the king to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of \"Eureka!\" upon the discovery of [[Archimedes\' principle]].[Kay, Melvyn (2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=xCtAV_MCD1EC&pg=PA45 \'\'Practical Hydraulics\'\']. Taylor and Francis. p. 45. ISBN 0-415-35115-4.]\n\n===Pewter===\nThe term [[pewter]] covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin was much too soft to be used for any practical purpose. However, in the [[Bronze age]], tin was a rare metal and, in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, was often valued higher than gold. To make jewelry, forks and spoons, or other objects from tin, it was usually alloyed with other metals to increase its strength and hardness. These metals were typically [[lead]], [[antimony]], [[bismuth]] or copper. These solutes sometimes were added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of things, ranging from practical items, like dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items such as ear rings and hair clips.\n\nThe earliest examples of pewter come from ancient Egypt, around 1450 BC. The use of pewter was widespread across Europe, from France to Norway and Britain (where most of the ancient tin was mined) to the Near East.[Hull, Charles (1992) \'\'Pewter\'\'. Shire Publications. pp. 3?4; ISBN 0-7478-0152-5] The alloy was also used in China and the Far East, arriving in Japan around 800 AD, where it was used for making objects like ceremonial vessels, tea canisters, or chalices used in [[shinto]] shrines.[Brinkley, Frank (1904) \'\'Japan and China: Japan, its history, arts, and literature\'\'. Oxford University. p. 317]\n\n===Steel and pig iron===\nThe first known smelting of iron began in [[Anatolia]], around 1800 BC. Called the [[bloomery|bloomery process]], it produced very soft but [[ductile]] [[wrought iron]]. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. [[Pig iron]], a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and [[carbon]], was being produced in [[History of China#Shang Dynasty (c. 1700?1046 BC)|China]] as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making [[cast-iron]]. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of [[crucible steel]] around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of [[pattern welding]], around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove [[slag]] and impurities. This method of [[Japanese swordsmithing]] produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the early Middle Ages.[Smith, Cyril (1960) \'\'History of metallography\'\'. MIT Press. pp. 2?4. ISBN 0-262-69120-5.]\n\nWhile the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal is much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of [[steel]], (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by [[heat treatment]] had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of [[blister steel]] during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the penetration of carbon was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, [[Benjamin Huntsman]] began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of [[tool steel]]. Huntsman\'s process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.[Roberts, George Adam; Krauss, George; Kennedy, Richard and Kennedy, Richard L. (1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ScphevR_eP8C&pg=PA2 \'\'Tool steels\'\']. ASM International. pp. 2?3. ISBN 0-87170-599-0.]\n\nWith the introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages, [[pig iron]] was able to be produced in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes of reducing the carbon in the [[liquid]] pig iron to create steel. [[Puddling (metallurgy)|Puddling]] was introduced during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by [[oxidation]]. In 1858, [[Sir Henry Bessemer]] developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The [[Bessemer process]] was able to produce the first large scale manufacture of steel.[{{cite book|author=Bramfitt, B. L. |title=Metallographer\'s Guide: Practice and Procedures for Irons and Steels|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hoM8VJHTt24C&pg=PA13|year=2001|publisher=ASM International|isbn=978-1-61503-146-7|pages=13?}}]\n\n===Precipitation-hardening alloys===\nIn 1906, [[precipitation hardening]] alloys were discovered by [[Alfred Wilm]]. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of [[aluminium]], [[titanium]], and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when [[quenching|quenched]] (cooled quickly), and then harden over time. After quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and [[magnesium]], Wilm discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919, [[duralumin]] was one of the first \"age hardening\" alloys to be used, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern [[aircraft]].[Jacobs, M. H. [http://www.slideshare.net/corematerials/talat-lecture-1204-precipitation-hardening-2318135 Precipitation Hardnening]. University of Birmingham. TALAT Lecture 1204. slideshare.net]\n\n==See also==\n* [[CALPHAD]]\n* [[Ideal mixture]]\n* [[List of alloys]]\n\n==References==\n{{reflist|35em}}\n\n==Bibliography==\n*{{cite book|ref=Buchwald|author=Buchwald, Vagn Fabritius |year=2005|title=Iron and steel in ancient times|publisher= Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |isbn= 87-7304-308-7}}\n\n==External links==\n{{Wiktionary|alloy}}\n{{Commons category|Alloys}}\n*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Alloys|author=[[William Chandler Roberts-Austen]]; Francis Henry Neville |short=x}}\n*[http://www.uni-ulm.de/~hhoster/personal/surface_alloys.html Surface Alloys]\n*{{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Alloy |short=x}}\n\n{{Authority control}}\n\n[[Category:Alloys| ]]\n[[Category:Metallurgy]]\n[[Category:Chemistry]]'